WilliamsT
.pdfTricks of the Light:
A Study of the Cinematographic Style of the Émigré Cinematographer Eugen Schüfftan
Submitted by Tomas Rhys Williams to the University of Exeter
as a thesis for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Film
In October 2011
This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.
I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University.
Signature: …………………………………………………………..
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Abstract
The aim of this thesis is to explore the overlooked technical role of cinematography, by discussing its artistic effects. I intend to examine the career of a single cinematographer, in order to demonstrate whether a dinstinctive cinematographic style may be defined. The task of this thesis is therefore to define that cinematographer’s style and trace its development across the course of a career. The subject that I shall employ in order to achieve this is the émigré cinematographer Eugen Schüfftan, who is perhaps most famous for his invention ‘The
Schüfftan Process’ in the 1920s, but who subsequently had a 40 year career acting as a cinematographer. During this time Schüfftan worked throughout Europe and America, shooting films that included Menschen am Sonntag (Robert Siodmak et al, 1929), Le Quai des brumes (Marcel Carné, 1938), Hitler’s Madman (Douglas Sirk, 1942), Les Yeux sans visage (Georges Franju, 1959) and The Hustler (Robert Rossen, 1961). During the course of this thesis I shall examine the evolution of Schüfftan’s style, and demonstrate how Schüfftan has come to be misunderstood as a cinematographer of German Expressionism. The truth, as I will show, is far more complex. Schüfftan also struggled throughout his career to cope with the consequences of exile. In this thesis I will also therefore examine the conditions of exile for an émigré cinematographer, and in particular Schüfftan’s prevention from joining the
American Society of Cinematographers. I intend to demonstrate how an understanding of cinematographic style can shed new light on a film, and to give renewed attention to an important cinematographer who has been largely ignored by film history.
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Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... |
2 |
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... |
4 |
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ |
5 |
Introduction................................................................................................................................ |
8 |
Chapter I .................................................................................................................................. |
33 |
Part One: The Technology and Aesthetics of The Schüfftan Process .................................. |
34 |
Part Two: Smoke and Mirrors, 1886-1933 .......................................................................... |
54 |
Chapter II................................................................................................................................. |
88 |
Part One: European Exile, 1933-1940 ................................................................................ |
89 |
Part Two, Case Study: Exile Modernism on Poverty Row, 1941-1946 ............................. |
148 |
Chapter III ............................................................................................................................. |
191 |
Part One: Travelling Light: A Return to Work in Europe, 1947-1959 .............................. |
192 |
Part Two, Case Study: The Cinematographic Representation of the Asylum Space ......... |
232 |
Chapter IV.............................................................................................................................. |
263 |
Part One: An American Cinematographer, 1960-1977 ..................................................... |
264 |
Part Two, Case Study: Cityspace in the New York City Trilogy........................................ |
280 |
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. |
340 |
Appendix: A Filmography of the Works of Eugen Schüfftan ................................................. |
349 |
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... |
362 |
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Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my gratitude to the following for their assistance in the research and writing of this thesis: the Arts and Humanities Research Council, for their funding of this thesis and two essential research trips to Paris and Berlin; the staff at the library of the British Film Institute, and at the Bibliothèque du film, Paris; the kind support of Maison Suger, Paris; the staff at the Deutsche Kinemathek, Berlin, and in particular Gerrit Thies for his insight of the Paul Kohner archive; Jim Walker and Vivien Halas of the Halas & Batchelor Collection for their insights on The First 99; my PhD colleagues and friends, Helen Beardsley, Gabor Gergely and Andrew Patch, for their friendship and support throughout. My thanks also go to the Department of Film at the University of Exeter, and in particular my second supervisor Will Higbee, and my supervisor Susan Hayward, for her unfailing assistance throughout this project. Finally, I am indebted to my family for their support: Steph Selway, Lyndsey Williams, Phil Williams, David Roberts, Floss Watts, Glyn Jones, Alyn Williams, Emma Weeks, Dylan Williams and the brand new Fern Williams.
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List of Figures
Figure 1: An example of the process entered with US patent 1,606,482. ............................................. |
36 |
Figure 2: An example of the Schufftan Process from Metropolis......................................................... |
37 |
Figure 3: The Stadium of the Sons........................................................................................................ |
43 |
Figure 4: The city of the workers.......................................................................................................... |
46 |
Figure 5: Metropolis, shot A. ................................................................................................................ |
57 |
Figure 6: Shot B (the reverse shot). ...................................................................................................... |
58 |
Figure 7: Schüfftan's experiment. Shot A and B are combined within the single image. .................... |
59 |
Figure 8: Menschen am Sonntag: A snapshot of a Sunday Afternoon.................................................. |
64 |
Figure 9: Abschied. A character blends into the darkness of the background as Schüfftan struggles to
overcome limitations imposed by new sound technology. ................................................................... |
67 |
Figure 10: A publicity image for Das Gestohlene Gesicht. .................................................................. |
69 |
Figure 11: Ins Blaue hinein. The young boy whistles up to his girlfriend’s apartment. ...................... |
73 |
Figure 12: Ins Blaue hinein. The reverse shot. The responsive whistle we hear on the sound track |
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from the girlfriend is matched by this image of a billboard.................................................................. |
74 |
Figure 13: Ins Blaue hinein. The next shot of this sequence shows the girlfriend waving from her |
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balcony, matching the image of the billboard in the previous shot....................................................... |
75 |
Figure 14: Ins Blaue hinein. The girlfriend matches the billboard girl’s gaze into the camera, before
discarding the feminine dress and choosing something more relaxed for her adventure...................... |
76 |
Figure 15: The Mistress of Atlantis. ...................................................................................................... |
84 |
Figure 16: Jean Gabin in Du Haut en bas............................................................................................. |
94 |
Figure 17: Bernouillin trapped in the theatre in La Crise est finie........................................................ |
96 |
Figure 18: Buster Keaton dances with Lupita Tovar in The Invader.................................................... |
98 |
Figure 19: Dramatic flashes of light in The Robber Symphony create the effect of lightning. ........... |
100 |
Figure 20: Spotlights and strong backlights to create a silhouette effect dominate in The Robber |
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Symphony for the first time in Schüfftan's career. .............................................................................. |
101 |
Figure 21: Schüfftan employs trick photography for ghostly effects in La Tendre ennemie.............. |
103 |
Figure 22: In La Tendre ennemie Schüfftan roots the living characters into the world through |
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avoidance of backlighting. .................................................................................................................. |
104 |
Figure 23: Schüfftan's spinning background lights signals the scene as a flashback.......................... |
105 |
Figure 24: Rembrandt lighting on Menschen am Sonntag.................................................................. |
109 |
Figure 25: Komedie om Geld. ............................................................................................................. |
112 |
Figure 26: Schüfftan avoids casting his spotlight directly onto faces in Mademoiselle Docteur. ...... |
114 |
Figure 27: Dita Parlow in Mademoiselle Docteur. Clockwise from top left: Figures 27 a, b, c and d.
............................................................................................................................................................ |
116 |
Figure 28: Carmen Amaya in María de la O. ..................................................................................... |
118 |
Figure 29: Sessue Hayakawa in Yoshiwara. ....................................................................................... |
122 |
Figure 30: Schüfftan's 'murky' lighting in Drôle de Drame................................................................ |
124 |
Figure 31: In Fortaiture, Schufftan allows the horizon to blend into the sky, highlighting the |
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brightness of the location. ................................................................................................................... |
126 |
Figure 32: Sessue Hayakawa as the mysterious Prince Hu-Long in Forfaiture. ................................ |
128 |
Figure 33: The reverse shot of Lise Delamere as Denise Moret......................................................... |
129 |
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Figure 34: |
Rembrandt's 'The Risen Christ Appearing to Mary Magdalene' (1638)............................ |
134 |
Figure 35: |
Rembrandt techniques in Mollenard. ................................................................................ |
135 |
Figure 36: Schufftan on set with the cast and crew of Le Quai des brumes (back row, fifth from left).
............................................................................................................................................................ |
136 |
Figure 37: Schufftan's 2,000-watt lamp produces unique lighting effects on Le Quai des brumes.... |
139 |
Figure 38: Christl Mardayn receives little light from Schüfftan in Le Drame de Shanghaï............... |
141 |
Figure 39: Edwige Feuillère in Sans lendemain. ................................................................................ |
145 |
Figure 40: Budgetary constraints are embraced to create an Expressionist influenced mise-en-scène on
Bluebeard............................................................................................................................................ |
172 |
Figure 41: Rembrandt lighting in Women in the Night. ...................................................................... |
195 |
Figure 42: Schüfftan employs Rembrandt's depth techniques in Women in the Night. ...................... |
196 |
Figure 43: The atmospheric photography of Gunman in the Streets recalls Le Quai des brumes...... |
200 |
Figure 44: Action from Gunman in the Streets is shot in the reflection of a mirror. .......................... |
202 |
Figure 45: Heaven in Les Joyeux Pélerins.......................................................................................... |
203 |
Figure 46: Barbara Laage in La Putain respectueuse. ........................................................................ |
208 |
Figure 47: The cyclops in Ulisse. ........................................................................................................ |
212 |
Figure 48: There is a lack of definition in Schüfftan's lighting for Una parigina a Roma. ................ |
214 |
Figure 49: Schufftan was able to maintain constant light levels on Hawkeye and the Last of the |
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Mohicans, despite the changeable weather conditions. ...................................................................... |
220 |
Figure 50: Schufftan employs a soft diffused light in the close-ups of the dream sequence in La |
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Première nuit. ..................................................................................................................................... |
224 |
Figure 51: In contrast, long-shots display a high-contrast use of lighting. ......................................... |
225 |
Figure 52: Les Yeux sans visage: Schüfftan avoids high contrast lighting of Christiane when she is |
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wearing the mask. ............................................................................................................................... |
229 |
Figure 53: Christiane (Edith Scob) without her mask in Les Yeux sans visage. ................................. |
230 |
Figure 54: Jean-Pierre Mocky in La Tête contre les murs. ................................................................. |
241 |
Figure 55: The asylum wall, strangely illuminated by the car's headlights. ....................................... |
245 |
Figure 56: Dr. Varmont looks down on his patient............................................................................. |
251 |
Figure 57: Mocky’s performance is enhanced by Schüfftan’s use of an eyelight. ............................. |
252 |
Figure 58: Our first view of the city space.......................................................................................... |
257 |
Figure 59: François heads down the stairs against Schüfftan’s chiaroscuro lighting. ........................ |
260 |
Figure 60: The dark exteriors of Un couple........................................................................................ |
266 |
Figure 61: The Chestnut Lodge, inspiration for Lilith’s Poplar Lodge............................................... |
271 |
Figure 62: The Killingworth Mansion, Long Island, the location for the Poplar Lodge. ................... |
271 |
Figure 63: The Poplar Lodge, in Lilith. .............................................................................................. |
272 |
Figure 64: The enigma of Lilith.......................................................................................................... |
273 |
Figure 65: The romantic Lilith............................................................................................................ |
274 |
Figure 66: The madness of Lilith........................................................................................................ |
274 |
Figure 67: Eugen Schüfftan at a press screening of Menschen am Sonntag, in March 1977. (Left to |
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right: Eugen Schüfftan, Kathinka Dittrich van Weringh, Marlise Schüfftan.) ................................... |
277 |
Figure 68: The obituary of Eugen Schüfftan, published by The New York Times on 12 September |
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1977. ................................................................................................................................................... |
278 |
Figure 69: We’re not in Paris anymore: An establishing shot of the New York skyline (an example of
Firstspace). .......................................................................................................................................... |
284 |
Figure 70: A dystopian view of the city in Something Wild (an example of Secondspace). .............. |
286 |
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Figure 71: Schüfftan on set with the cast and crew of Le Quai des brumes in 1938 (back row, second |
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from right)........................................................................................................................................... |
293 |
Figure 72: Schüfftan on set with Marcel Carné and the cast of Trois chambres à Manhattan in 1965 |
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(far left). .............................................................................................................................................. |
294 |
Figure 73: Map and table showing the key locations employed on Manhattan Island for the three |
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films. ................................................................................................................................................... |
297 |
Figure 74: Piecharts demonstating the degree of interiors and exteriors in each of the three films. .. |
299 |
Figure 75: Mary Ann struggling in her claustrophobic apartment...................................................... |
313 |
Figure 76: A diagram of Mike's apartment. ........................................................................................ |
315 |
Figure 77: A glimpse of the city through a bedroom window in Trois chambres à Manhattan.......... |
319 |
Figure 78: Schüfftan’s employs the CinemaScope lens to capture the dimensions of the pool table in |
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The Hustler.......................................................................................................................................... |
322 |
Figure 79: Eddie emerges from the apartment and strains his eyes as he looks up to the sky............ |
327 |
Figure 80: Kay and François use the backdrop of Central Park to discuss the state of their relationship. |
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............................................................................................................................................................ |
328 |
Figure 81: Eddie enters his new home at the bus terminal, as passengers pass through the non-place.
............................................................................................................................................................ |
332 |
Figure 82: Mary Ann struggles amongst the commuters on the subway. ........................................... |
333 |
Figure 83: The Hotel Sherman, where Kay and François choose to establish their tryst. .................. |
336 |
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Introduction
Eugen Schüfftan is a name little known, except perhaps for his famous invention, ‘The Schüfftan Process’. His craft of cinematography is one that is often misunderstood and is little discussed. This thesis aims to fill that critical and historical gap by examining the cinematographic work of Eugen Schüfftan.
Eugen Schüfftan entered the film industry in the 1920s with the invention of the famous special effects process that shares his name, and which was used to famous effect on Fritz
Lang’s Metropolis (1927). Schüfftan began a career as a cinematographer in Berlin in 1929, when he made Menschen am Sonntag/People on Sunday, alongside Billy Wilder, Fred Zinnemann, Edgar G. Ulmer, and the brothers Curt and Robert Siodmak. The film took a realist perspective on life for the youth of the city, a far cry from the trends of Expressionism that the 1920s German cinema had become famous for. Schüfftan continued to make films in
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Berlin until 1933, developing his interests in realism and drawing his aesthetic inspiration from painters such as Rembrandt.
Following the rise to power of the Nazi Party, Schüfftan fled Germany in 1933, and began a period of work throughout Europe, finding particular success in France. Schüfftan continued to develop his painterly approach to the film image, whilst also nuancing this style to meet the demands of those directors who expected of him an Expressionist technique. Schüfftan found particular success in this period through his collaborations with other German exiles, such as Max Ophüls and G.W. Pabst. His work in Poetic Realism with Marcel Carné (on Le Quai des brumes/Port of Shadows (1938)) also proved a great success. The outbreak of war followed by the Nazi occupation of France forced many film personnel, including Schüfftan, to flee Europe.
For Schüfftan this exile occurred in 1941, when he left Europe for America, where he had been promised work by the producer Arnold Pressburger. Upon his arrival Schüfftan learned that it was necessary for him to be a member of the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC) before he was allowed to act in that role in America. Schüfftan was blocked from membership on his continual attempts to join throughout the 1940s, which effectively prevented him from working for any of the major studios. Instead, Schüfftan was forced to rely upon work for the low-budget films made by Hollywood’s Poverty Row, where a number of other émigrés had been forced to gravitate. In these Poverty Row studios, old friends of Schüfftan’s (most notably Edgar Ulmer) helped by allowing him to act as a cinematographer, although union laws prevented him from being credited for these roles.
This continued throughout the 1940s, until frustration caused by Schüfftan’s effective blacklisting from the major studios forced the cinematographer to return to work in Europe at the end of the decade.
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During the late 1940s and 1950s Schüfftan travelled between Europe and Canada for a variety of film and television projects, including collaborations with Alexandre Astruc and Julien Duvivier. At the end of the 1950s Schüfftan would unite with the French director Georges Franju, which would bring him renewed success, and lead at last to some recognition in America. Finally, in 1960 Schüfftan was admitted to (the New York branch of) the American Society of Cinematographers, allowing him to shoot films in the New York area. Schüfftan then achieved the greatest successes of his career, including work for Robert
Rossen’s Lilith and for Marcel Carné on Trois chambres à Manhattan. The crowning glory at the end of Schüfftan’s long career was an Academy Award for his cinematography of The Hustler (1963), nearly twenty years after he had arrived in America and was prevented from joining the American Society of Cinematographers.
The aim of this thesis is to tread new ground by examining the career of a single cinematographer, in order to investigate whether a coherent cinematographic style may be attributed to a cinematographer, which thereby impacts upon film meaning. The role of the cinematographer should not be underestimated. The difficulty in discussing the work of a cinematographer has been that it is an artistry achieved through a highly technical craft. However, they are the image-makers, responsible for ensuring that the content of the frame is visible through correct lighting. It is fair to assume therefore, that the cinematographer has the ability to greatly alter the meaning of an image through his or her approach to lighting. And yet the role of the cinematographer is rarely understood as offering a unique approach to the image, instead merely undertaking the will of the director.
Through such a study I intend to rectify this critical oversight and grant renewed attention to the role of the cinematographer. The brief biographical overview I have offered demonstrates a number of reasons why Eugen Schüfftan is an important subject for such a study. He made a great number of significant films, with an assortment of highly-regarded directors
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