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Dictionary of Literary Influences

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Spock, Benjamin McLane

Frank Herbert. Other magazines that Spielberg perused on a regular basis included Forest J. Ackerman’s Famous Monsters of Filmland, the content of which reflected the young director’s early fascination with Hollywood movies. Spielberg avidly read the work of science fiction authors Ray Bradbury, Isaac Asimov, Jules Verne and H. G. Wells and has cited J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Two Towers, Arthur C. Clarke’s The City of the Stars, and Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man as his favorite fantasy epics. His choice of light and fantastical literature was developmental to the formation of his powerful imagination and creativity, which would contribute directly to his later successes.

Archives

California State Archives, Sacramento.

Printed Sources

Baxter, John. Steven Spielberg: The Unauthorized Biography (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1996).

McBride, Joseph. Steven Spielberg: A Biography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997). Perry, George. Steven Spielberg (London: Orion Books, 1998).

Gregory L. Schnurr

SPOCK, BENJAMIN MCLANE (1903–1997)

Benjamin Spock was born in New Haven, Connecticut. When he was finally allowed to read (his mother didn’t believe that children should learn to read until the age of seven), he began with Beatrix Potter’s Peter Rabbit and, over his childhood years, moved on to Robert Louis Stevenson’s Treasure Island and The Book of Knowledge encyclopedias before devouring the works of Charles Dickens and Mark Twain. He was educated at Hamden Hall preparatory school and Phillips Academy and earned a B.S. at Yale University (1925), where he read—in addition to the standard curriculum of Chaucer, Shakespeare (whose “seven ages of man” were later to influence the concepts underlying Decent and Indecent: Our Personal and Political Behavior [1969]), Pope, Samuel Johnson, Byron, and Shelley—The Glories of Yale Athletics, which reinforced his desire to go out for what became the gold-medal U.S. Olympic crew of 1924.

After medical training at Yale University School of Medicine (1925–27) and Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons (earning his M.D. in 1929), and internships and residencies at New York’s Presbyterian Hospital (1929–31), New York Nursery and Child’s Hospital (1931–32), and Payne Whitney Clinic of New York Hospital (1932–33), Spock’s training analysis was conducted in 1933–34 by Dr. Bertram Lewin, a disciple of Freud’s. In 1933 Spock opened a private pediatric practice in New York, attracting an avant-garde clientele including anthropologist Margaret Mead. After serving as a psychiatrist in the U.S. Navy (1944–46), he joined the Mayo Clinic (1947–51), concurrently serving on the Mayo Graduate School of Medicine (part of the University of Minnesota) faculty. From 1951 to 1955 he was a teacher and administrator at the Western Psychiatric Institute. His final academic appointment was as a professor of child development and child psychiatry at the Western Reserve University Medical School in Cleveland, Ohio, 1955–67.

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Publication of the immediately bestselling Baby and Child Care (first edition, 1946, initially published as The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care; sixth edition, coauthored with Dr. Michael Rothenberg, 1992) led to Spock’s national prominence as a popular advisor to parents, not only in the successive editions of his book but in monthly (and later more intermittent) columns in The Ladies Home Journal (1954–62) and Redbook (1963–92). Impelled to oppose nuclear testing in the 1960s because of the threat to children’s health from nuclear fallout in milk, Spock retired to devote full time to opposing the Vietnam War as cochair of SANE, the National Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy, and a member of other opposition groups. As a member of the “Boston Five,” Spock was tried and convicted for conspiracy to encourage draft resistance (1968) and acquitted on appeal (1969). He ran for president in 1972 as the People’s Party candidate.

Although Spock’s political activism continued throughout his life, he will remain best known for revolutionizing American child-rearing practices, primarily through Baby and Child Care, which considered the psychological as well as the physical aspects of child development. Although his medical training and inclinations were strongly Freudian, he was influenced as much by his experience as a training analysand as by his reading of such works as Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams (1900),

Psychopatholog y of Everyday Life (1904), and Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality

(1905). Spock’s major works—all writings for parents—deliberately eschewed Freudian language, even when discussing toilet training and attachment to parents. Yet his implicit Freudianism was made manifest in Decent and Indecent: “The little girl’s envy of the boy’s penis and the boy’s envy of the little girl’s ability to grow babies create rivalries that persist into adulthood.” His reading of earlier texts on child development, including Luther Emmett Holt’s The Care and Feeding of Children: A Catechism for the Use of Mothers and Children’s Nurses (1894) and behaviorist John B. Watson’s Psychological Care of Infant and Child (1928), provided negative models against which to present his positive one, both in substance and in Spock’s reader-friendly style. Spock was also influenced by John Dewey’s ideas on progressive education, such as those expressed in Experience and Education (1938), and he combined these with psychoanalytic educational theory by his mentor, Caroline Zachry, in seminars and in such works as Emotion and Conduct in Adolescence (1940).

Archives

Dr. Benjamin Spock Collection, George Arents Research Library, Syracuse University,

Syracuse, New York.

Printed Works

Bloom, Lynn Z. Doctor Spock: Biography of a Conservative Radical (Indianapolis: Bobbs Merrill, 1972).

Hubbard, Mary Ellen. “Benjamin Spock, M.D.: The Man and His Work in Historical Perspective.” Ph.D. diss., Claremont Graduate School, 1981.

Maier, Thomas. Dr. Spock: An American Life (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998).

Sulman, A. Michael. “The Humanization of the American Child: Benjamin Spock as a Popularizer of Psychoanalytic Thought,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 9 (1973), 258–65.

Weiss, Nancy Pottishman. “Mother, the Invention of Necessity: Dr. Benjamin Spock’s Baby and Child Care,” American Quarterly 29 (Winter 1977), 519–46.

Lynn Z. Bloom

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Stalin, Josef Vissarionovich

STALIN, JOSEF VISSARIONOVICH (1879–1953)

Josef Stalin was born to Vissarion and Ekaterina Djugashvili in Gori, Georgia. At the persistence of his mother, Josef, nicknamed Soso, was sent to the local church school in Gori. In 1894, he entered Tiflis Seminary. It was at seminary that Stalin became interested in revolutionary ideas and activities. He left seminary in 1898 without graduating to work full-time with the Social-Democratic Party. He experienced his first state arrest and exile in 1902. By 1907, Stalin was a committed revolutionary and even attended the Fifth Congress of the Russian Social-Democratic Party in London. His article, “Marxism and the National Question,” written in 1913, brought him to the attention of V. I. Lenin. After the Revolution of 1917, he served on the Central Committee and then the Politburo of the Communist Party. In 1922, he was elected secretary-general of the Communist Party. He solidified his power as dictator by 1930. Stalin allied the U.S.S.R. with Great Britain and the United States during the Second World War. Then he led the U.S.S.R. against the West in the beginning of the ideological conflict of the cold war. In 1953, Stalin suffered a stroke and died.

Stalin was a practical revolutionary, not a philosophical intellectual. He was a Bolshevik Communist and dealt with ideology as it furthered the revolution and party interests. As a young boy, he devoured Georgian literature in rebellion against the Russification policies of the czarist government. Writers such as Ilie Chavchavadze and Daniel Chonkadze attracted his attention, but none captivated him so much as the author Alexander Kazbegi in The Patricide. So fascinated was Stalin with this heroic adventure that he nicknamed himself “Koba,” the name of the main character and hero. Even at seminary, he supplemented his required readings of theology, Russian history and literature, Latin, and Greek with the illicit readings of “The Men in the Panther’s Skin,” an old, twelfth-century Georgian epic by Shota Rustaveli, as well as Vanity Fair by William Makepeace Thackeray and the works of Victor Hugo. Though not allowed by the seminary, Stalin also studied the works of Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, and Georgi Plekhanov.

Stalin’s communist writings of 1906–7 reveal a studied knowledge of the works of Marx and Friedrich Engels, Paul Louis, and Peter Kropotkin. As leader of the Communist Party, he was attentive to the literature in the Soviet Union. His library consisted of works by Dmitrii Furmanov, Vsevolod Ivanov, Fedor Gladkov; the poetry of Alexander Bezymensky, Demian Bednyi, and Sergei Yesenin; and especially the works of Maxim Gorky, which he greatly admired. Special location and notes in the margins indicate that Stalin was deeply interested in the thoughts and ideas of Lenin, Karl Kautsky, Leon Trotsky, Nikolai Bukharin, Grigori Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and Paul Lafargue. Stalin readily admitted that he did not understand philosophy and did not grasp the role of the dialectic, a foundational Marxist principle. He employed a private teacher who tutored him with the readings of G.W.F. Hegel, Immanuel Kant, Ludwig Feuerbach, Johann Fichte, and Friedrich Schelling. Marginal annotations suggest that Stalin enjoyed the study of history over philosophy. He read I. Bellyarminov’s Course of Russian History and R. Vipper’s History of the Roman Empire and found especially fascinating Alexei Tolstoy’s histories of Ivan the Terrible and the Romanovs. Showing limited interest in literature generally, Stalin was mainly concerned with works that practically affected revolution and the Communist Party.

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Archives

Archive of the President of the Russian Federation, Moscow. Stalin’s personal archive, Moscow.

Russian Center for the Preservation and Study of Documents Relating to Modern History (formerly Central Party Archives), Moscow.

Annotated Books from Stalin’s Private Library, Moscow.

Printed Works

Bullock, Alan. Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992). Radzinsky, Edvard. Stalin, H. T. Willetts (trans.), (New York: Doubleday, 1996). Includes a

substantial listing of available manuscript documents.

Tucker, Robert C. Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1973). Volkogonov, Dmitri. Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, Harold Shukman (ed. and trans.), (Lon-

don: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1991).

Katherine Matthews

STEICHEN, EDWARD (1879–1973)

Edward Steichen was born in Luxembourg but moved to Michigan with his family when he was two years old. An avid lover of nature, Steichen spent much of his childhood outdoors before going on to Pio Nono College in Milwaukee and entering an apprenticeship with the American Lithographing Company there. In 1899 Steichen displayed his first exhibition in the Second Philadelphia Salon; however, the failure to attract interest in his work led him to travel to France, where he encountered and became heavily influenced by the sculpture of Auguste Rodin. By 1904 Steichen was experimenting with multi-color separation and began to find success as a photographer. In 1947 he became the director of the Department of Photography at New York’s Museum of Modern Art, where he remained until his death.

Steichen was repeatedly heard to comment that “all [his] work [wa]s commercial.” From Rodin and as in the case of the poet Rainer Maria Rilke, Steichen adopted a strong work ethic that embodied hours of research and study to improve his own works. He was fascinated with Theodore Andrea Cook’s text, The Curves of Life (1914), as well as the writings of Leonardo da Vinci. By 1920, Steichen developed an interest in conveying meaning through ordinary objects, and hence was influenced by French symbolist writers including Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud, and Paul Verlaine, and also by the philosophy and writings of Albert Einstein. Nevertheless, nature remained the most important object of Steichen’s attention, and he avidly read the American transcendentalist writers Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson as well as Maeterlinck’s Intelligence of Flowers, which encouraged him to discard artifice in artistic production. Steichen made repeated trips to Walden Pond to create a limited edition of Thoreau’s Walden and produced photos and illustrations for a nature-based text written by his daughter entitled First Picturebook: Everyday Things for Babies (1930).

Archives

The Museum of Modern Art, New York, Audio-Visual Archives: complete works, the most extensive collection of papers, interviews, and works available.

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Archives of American Art at the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C.: Bowden Papers, Arthur Carles’ Papers, Day Papers, Beaumont Newhall Interview, Peter Belz Papers.

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University: 354 leaves of correspondence.

Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona, Tucson.

International Museum of Photography, George Eastman Library, Rochester, New York.

Printed Sources

Gedrim, Ronald. Edward Steichen: Selected Texts and Bibliography (New York: G.K. Hall and Company, 1996).

Niven, Penelope. Steichen: A Biography (New York: Clarkson Potter, 1997). Sandburg, Carl. Steichen, the Photographer (New York: Doubleday, 1961).

Smith, Joel. Edward Steichen: The Early Years (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999).

Dana Milstein

STEIN, GERTRUDE (1874–1946)

Gertrude Stein, modernist, avant-garde author and poet, was born in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, to Daniel and Amelia (Keyser) Stein. The Steins and their five children moved throughout Europe, subsequently settling in Oakland, California, in 1880. By the time Stein turned seventeen, she had lost both parents and moved to San Francisco to live with her brother Michael. In 1892, Stein and sister Bertha moved again to Baltimore to live with their maternal aunt. A year later following her brother Leo, she entered the Harvard Annex (Radcliffe College) and studied under Hugo Münsterberg, William Vaughn Moody, and William James, her mentor and greatest influence. In 1896 Stein and Leon Solomons published the “Normal Motor Automatism” in Psychological Review. While in Radcliffe she failed her Latin exam and was refused her degree, ultimately awarded to her in 1898. She entered Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1897, but failed four courses and did not receive a degree. In 1903 Gertrude joined Leo in Paris, at 27 rue de Fleurus, and started working on the early drafts of The Making of Americans and Things as They Are. Fascinated by Charles Loeser’s collection of Cézannes in Florence, the Steins began collecting postimpressionist art works. In 1905 they purchased Henri Matisse’s La Femme au Chapeau and met Pablo Picasso, Gertrude’s most admired friend and artist, who painted her illustrious portrait. In 1909 Stein published her first book, Three Lives, and Alice B. Toklas, whom she met in 1907, moved in with her. Their lesbian relationship lasted for 39 years until Stein’s death. The couple kept a hectic literary salon in their apartment, frequented by prominent figures such as Henri Mattisse, Picasso, Guillaume Apollinaire, Georges Braque, Sherwood Anderson, Carl van Vechten, and Ernest Hemingway. Remarkably, Stein and Toklas survived the two world wars, and the two decades between the wars were Stein’s most productive and prolific years. In 1933 Stein attained celebrity status with the publication of The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, an instant bestseller. In the mid-1930s, Stein toured and lectured throughout England and the United States, promoting her writings and her modernist worldview.

The end of the nineteenth century was characterized by a belief in science and progress, termed “evolution” in Stein’s Wars I Have Seen. In an era in which utopianism and optimism ended, Stein’s interest and preoccupation with psychology and philosophy should not be underestimated as she explored the ideas of Henri Berg-

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son, Alfred North Whitehead, I. A. Richards, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. In her

Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, the narrator claims that “the most important person in Gertrude Stein’s Radcliffe life was William James.” The sum of what she absorbed from him transpires in her lecture The Gradual Making of The Making of Americans: “When I was working with William James I completely learned one thing, that science is continuously busy with the complete description of something, with ultimately the complete description of anything with ultimately the complete description of everything.” Still some critics argue that she had taken James’s expression “keep your mind open” (and his pragmatism) too literally. In Picasso she admitted to using the “cubistic vision” in her writings, citing three reasons: “First. The composition, because the way of living had changed the composition of living had extended and each thing was as important as any other thing. Secondly . . . the faith in what the eyes were seeing . . . commenced to diminish . . . [and] Thirdly, the framing of life, the need that a picture exist in its frame, remain in its frame was over.” Though an American expatriate all her life, Stein was close linguistically and conceptually to Shakespearian English in particular and to the Elizabethan writers in general. Her idea of the exemplary novel came from her fascination with Samuel Richardson’s Clarissa, the first epistolary novel and one of the longest novels in the English literature, which she ritually reread every year. In 1946, the year she died of cancer, her first nonmusical play Yes Is for a Very Young Man, was performed in New York.

Archives

The main repository for Gertrude Stein’s works is the Beinecke Library, Yale University, which carries most of her manuscripts, correspondence, and unpublished notebooks. Other extensive collections are housed at the Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, and the University of Texas at Austin.

Printed Sources

Brinnin, John Malcolm. The Third Rose: Gertrude Stein and Her World (Boston: Little, Brown, 1959).

Hobhouse, Janet. Everybody Who Was Anybody: A Biography of Gertrude Stein (New York: Putman’s, 1975).

Stein, Gertrude. Everybody’s Autobiography (New York: Random House, 1937; London & Toronto: Heinemann, 1938).

———.Last Operas and Plays, Carl van Vechten (ed.), (New York & Toronto: Rinehart, 1949).

———.The Making of Americans, Being a History of a Family’s Progress (Paris: Contact Editions, 1925; New York: A. & C. Boni, 1926; London: Owen, 1968); abridged as The Making of Americans, The Hersland Family (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1934).

———.Wars I Have Seen (New York: Random House, 1945; enlarged edition, London: Batsford, 1945).

Toklas, Alice B. What Is Remembered (New York, Chicago & San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963).

Dina Ripsman Eylon

STEINBECK, JOHN (1902–1968)

John Steinbeck was born in Salinas, California, and grew up in the Salinas Valley, where he would eventually set a number of his works. He graduated from high

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school and entered Stanford University in 1919, attending sporadically until 1925 but never earning a degree. While working at various jobs to finance his education, Steinbeck learned firsthand of the labor struggles he would later write about in works such as In Dubious Battle (1936) and The Grapes of Wrath (1939). Although he did not want to be labeled a political writer, he is best remembered for his novels depicting the socioeconomic problems involving agricultural workers in 1930s California. Steinbeck won the Pulitzer Prize in 1940 for The Grapes of Wrath and the Nobel Prize for literature in 1962.

Steinbeck’s childhood reading varied; along with the Bible and Greek myths, he specifically recalled reading Crime and Punishment, Madame Bovary, Paradise Lost, The Return of the Native, Pilgrim’s Progress, Morte d’Arthur, and the works of George Eliot and William Shakespeare as well as various poets and writers of adventure. Sir Thomas Malory’s Morte d’Arthur was clearly important to Steinbeck in later years, as its influence is evident in Tortilla Flat (1935), Cannery Row (1945), and implicitly in nearly all his published work. When Steinbeck graduated from high school, he had a solid background in world literature, and as he matured, his interests expanded into anthropology, biology, ecology, sociology, and philosophy. He was also widely read in psychology and profoundly affected by the works of Carl Jung.

As an adult, Steinbeck read voraciously and was especially fond of ancient classics and poetry, particularly that of Walt Whitman and Robinson Jeffers. While he read contemporary fiction, he was keenly aware of his susceptibility to influence, a tendency he attempted to restrain, although he was sometimes accused of being imitative. Steinbeck’s fiction frequently refers or alludes to other works, demonstrating his vast range of knowledge in numerous areas. To his later embarrassment, Cup of Gold (1929) was obviously influenced by fantasy writers such as James Stephens, Donn Byrne, and James Branch Cabell. To a God Unknown (1933) shows the influence of Sir James Frazer’s The Golden Bough, and we can see the influence of the Bible on The Grapes of Wrath and East of Eden (1952); Paradise Lost on In Dubious Battle; Tao Te Ching on Cannery Row; and the plays of William Shakespeare on The Winter of Our Discontent (1961). In the last decade of his life, Steinbeck worked to create a modern edition of Morte d’Arthur, translating a substantial portion, but never completing it. The work was published posthumously as The Acts of King Arthur and His Noble Knights (1976).

Perhaps the largest single influence on Steinbeck’s work was Edward F. Ricketts, a marine biologist whom he befriended in 1930. Steinbeck’s ongoing dialogue with Ricketts helped to shape Steinbeck’s own worldview, and a number of his novels have a philosophical Ricketts-like character as a central figure. The two collaborated on The Sea of Cortez (1941).

Archives

Martha Heasley Cox Center for Steinbeck Studies, San Jose State University, San Jose, California. Manuscripts, letters, first editions, secondary works, photographs, films, cassettes, reviews.

The John Steinbeck Collection, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. Joined by recently acquired Wells Fargo Steinbeck Collection. Manuscripts, letters, photographs, letters written by Steinbeck to his close relatives, unpublished poems and stories written during young adulthood.

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Printed Sources

Benson, Jackson J. The True Adventures of John Steinbeck, Writer (New York: Viking, 1984). DeMott, Robert. Steinbeck’s Reading: A Catalogue of Books Owned and Borrowed (New York:

Garland, 1984).

Wendy Pearce Miller

STEINEM, GLORIA (1934– )

Gloria Steinem was born in Toledo, Ohio. A granddaughter of Pauline Steinem, who was closely involved in the suffrage movement, Steinem lived in poverty after the divorce of her parents. She graduated from Smith College in 1956 with a B.A. and began graduate studies at the University of New Delhi and the University of Calcutta in 1957–58. Returning to New York, she had difficulty in finding her place in the publishing industry and worked freelance until becoming a contributing editor to Glamour from 1962 to 1969. She also contributed to Cosmopolitan, Esquire, Family Circle, Life, Show, and Vogue. Dubbed “The World’s Most Beautiful Byline” by Newsweek staff writer Harvey Aronson, she is most known for her 1963 article “I Was a Playboy Bunny” in which she infiltrated the New York Playboy Club, investigated, and exposed the daily degradations women tolerated. In 1968 Steinem and Clay Felker founded New York magazine. Correct in her belief that stories featuring feminist issues were unacceptable to the male-controlled magazines, with Felker’s backing she and her staff worked without pay to publish the first issue of Ms. in January 1972. That same year McCall’s named her “Woman of the Year.” Undoubtedly, she is the most recognized face of the women who organized the second wave of feminism. Steinem’s first collection of essays, Outrageous Acts and Everyday Rebellions (1983) was soon followed by Marilyn: Norma Jeane (1986), which she wrote essentially to balance Norman Mailer’s indifferent work Marilyn, a Biography (1973). Though her next book, Revolution from Within: A Book of Self-Esteem (1992), met with criticism for being too “New Age,” her most recent book, Moving Beyond Words (1994), provided perspective on the women’s movement.

Early on Steinem developed a keen interest in reading as a means to escape from her impoverished home and the demands of her mother’s mental illness. Given a white leather Bible one Christmas, she tried religion as a means of escape as well. She described her childhood as “indiscriminately bookish, during which I did not go to school but worked my way through the entirety of Nancy Drew, Godey’s Lady’s Book, and the Theosophical Library” (Heilbrun 1995, 46). Additionally, she read “the Hardy Boys; a series by Mazo de la Roche called the Whiteoaks of Jalna (1927–1968); and isolated books of a series on the Civil War, and learned about sex from books her parents said she should not have read” (Stern 1997, 26). Like most girls at a certain age, she relished horse stories. From the age of six on, Steinem read Little Women annually. Identifying with Louisa May Alcott’s strongest character, Jo March, she later read Alcott’s adult novels and fancied her as an imaginary friend. She also enjoyed comic books, especially Wonder Woman, but also Superman, Sheena of the Jungle, and Batman. While it is uncertain that Sylvia Plath’s poetry and, later, The Bell Jar influenced Steinem, they were contemporaries at Smith College, where Steinem “loved curling up in a big chair in the library. She loved the library’s open stacks with 381,390 volumes” (Stern 1997, 66). A Passage to India was one of her favorite books, and E. M. Forster one of her favorite authors, as she

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found his gentle voice and strong female characters especially appealing (Heilbrun 1995, 51). At Smith she also read Plato, Aristotle, and Marx. Alice Walker’s novels and nonfiction were particularly influential upon Steinem, as was their close friendship. Sven Lindqvist’s Exterminate All the Brutes (1997) has also been mentioned as a recent influence.

Archives

Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts: 300 boxes and documents dating back to 1940. Materials in the collection include correspondence, speeches, court testimony, news articles, photographs, and other memorabilia once owned by Steinem.

Interview

Richards, Amy, personal assistant to Gloria Steinem. Interview by author, 20 February 2002, New York. By telephone.

Printed Sources

Heilbrun, Carolyn G. The Education of a Woman: The Life of Gloria Steinem (New York: Dial Press, 1995).

Stern, Sydney Ladensohn. Gloria Steinem: Her Passions, Politics, and Mystique (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Pub. Group, 1997).

Rebecca Tolley-Stokes

STIEGLITZ, ALFRED (1864–1946)

Alfred Stieglitz, one of the most important photographers in the history of the medium, was also a tireless promoter of photography as a fine art and, more generally, a champion of modernism in America. He exerted considerable influence through his art magazine, Camera Work (1903–17) and through his New York gallery 291, “The Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession.” Born in Hoboken, New Jersey, and raised there and in Manhattan, Stieglitz read Horatio Alger stories, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and Charles Carleton Coffin’s The Boys of ’76. As a 20-year-old he listed William Shakespeare, Lord Byron, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, and Mark Twain as his favorite authors (Whelan 1995, 65). The hero of David Copperfield was his favorite in all literature, Johann Goethe’s Faust his favorite childhood book altogether. After a private school education in New York, Stieglitz’s parents sent him to Berlin to finish his education. Between 1882 and 1886 he was enrolled at the Technische Hochschule (the Polytechnic) to study mechanical engineering and then became committed to technical photography courses. He read much Russian literature, then in vogue, including works by Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolai Gogol, Aleksander Pushkin, Ivan Turgenev, and Lev Tolstoy. By the end of the 1880s, he revered the naturalism of Émile Zola. He was especially moved by Madeleine Férat—he once sat up all night reading it aloud to friends—and avidly read the entire Rougon-Macquart series. Stieglitz’s photograph Sun RaysPaula (1889), actually a picture of a prostitute, may be something of an homage to Zola. As a student he also assisted at innumerable operas and plays by William Shakespeare, Pedro Calderón, Goethe, Gotthold Lessing, Johann Schiller, Henrik Ibsen, and José Echegaray. Years later, Stieglitz was a regular attendee at the Greenwich Village productions of the Provincetown Players.

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Literature was an important influence on early art photography. Pictorialism, the movement in photography with which Stieglitz is associated, had intense literary pretensions. Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass was held in the highest regard by Stieglitz’s circle for its espousal of Americanism and romantic individualism. Stieglitz’s awareness of contemporary literature was acute since he promoted and/or was personally acquainted with many of the most famous literary figures of his day. Contributors to Camera Work included figures such as George Bernard Shaw, Maurice Maeterlinck, and Gertrude Stein, among others. He counted among his friends Carl Sandburg, Marianne Moore, Hart Crane, Sherwood Anderson, Van Wyck Brooks, Carl Van Vechten, Edmund Wilson, Frank Harris, and Theodore Dreiser. Stieglitz so admired Dreiser’s Sister Carrie (1900) that he gave copies to many of his friends. A photograph of locomotives, Hand of Man (1902), may demonstrate Stieglitz’s predilection for Dreiser’s realism. In the summer of 1924, during a retreat to Lake George, New York, Stieglitz is known to have read James Joyce’s then-notorious Ulysses. When D. H. Lawrence sent Stieglitz a copy of Lady Chatterly’s Lover in 1928, Stieglitz called the book “one of the grandest that had ever been written, a sort of Bible, on a par with Goethe and Shakespeare.” His own earlier nude studies reveal a similarly frank eroticism.

Archives

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York houses the largest collection of Stieglitz’s photographs. The National Gallery (Washington, D.C.), the Library of Congress, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art also have significant holdings. The Philadelphia Museum of Art hosts the Alfred Stieglitz Center.

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Correspondence.

Printed Sources

Green, Jonathan. Camera Work: A Critical Antholog y (Millerton, N.Y.: Aperture, 1973). Greenough, Sarah, and Juan Hamilton (eds.). Alfred Stieglitz: Photographs and Writings. 2nd

ed. (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art/Bulfinch Press/Little, Brown, 1999). Whelan, Richard. Alfred Stieglitz: A Biography (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1995).

Mark B. Pohlad

STOPES, MARIE CHARLOTTE CARMICHAEL (1880–1958)

Marie Stopes was born in Edinburgh to the English architect, archeologist, and geologist Henry Stopes and his feminist wife, Charlotte Carmichael, one of the first women to attend a Scottish university. The family moved to London when Marie was six weeks old. She and her younger sister Winnie were raised in a curious mixture of socially progressive scientific thought and stern Scottish Protestantism. Her authoritarian mother trusted the Bible but still supported women’s suffrage, clothing reform, and free thought. Her father was a gentle soul who cared mainly for science. Marie was educated at home until 1892, then attended St. George’s High School for Girls in Edinburgh until 1894, when she transferred to North London Collegiate School for Girls. She enrolled at University College, London, in 1900 on a science scholarship, graduating with a B.Sc. in 1902 with

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