Dictionary of Literary Influences

Rushdie, Salman

Istituto Luce, Rome. http://www.luce.it/index.html.

Institut national d’audiovisuel (INA), Paris. Inathèque. Films, correspondence. Cinémathèque française, Paris. Copies of some rare films, including Vanina Vanini (1961). The Menil Collection, Media Center, Rice University, Houston, Texas. Rossellini was teach-

ing there in 1972; he recorded many hours of video, mainly about scientific experiments.

Printed Sources

Bellour, Raymond. “Le cinéma, au-delà.” In Alain Bergala et Jean Narboni (eds.), Roberto Rossellini (Paris: Éditions de l’Étoile/Cahiers du cinéma/Cinémathèque française, 1990), 17.

De Angelis, Raul Maria. “Rossellinin romancer.” In Alain Bergala et Jean Narboni (eds.), Roberto Rossellini (Paris: Éditions de l’Étoile/Cahiers du cinéma/Cinémathèque française, 1990), 17.

Gallagher, Tag. The Adventures of Roberto Rossellini (New York: Da Capo Press, 1998). Maria de Angelis, Raul. In Cinema 29 (December 30, 1949).

Rossellini, Roberto. Fragments d’une autobiographie (Paris: Ramsay, 1987). Written in French in 1977; postscript by Stefano Roncoroni.

———.Un esprit libre ne doit rien apprendre en esclave, Paul Alexandre (trans.), (Paris: Fayard, 1977).

———.My Method: Writings and Interviews, Annapaola Cancogni (trans.), (New York: Marsilio Publishers, 1993).

Rossi, Patrizio. Roberto Rossellini: A Guide to References and Resources (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1988).

Yves Laberge

RUSHDIE, SALMAN (1947– )

The literary world first took notice of author and critic Salman Rushdie in 1981 when his second novel, Midnight’s Children, took the prestigious Booker Prize. The work, a mix of magic realism, deft wordplay, and history, recreated the first 30 years of India’s independence through its narrator, Saleem Sinai, one of the “midnight’s children” born in the hour when India gained its independence in August 1947. In 1993 the novel gained the “Booker of Bookers,” as the best work in the prize’s history. Rushdie’s next novel, however, brought him global attention. The Satanic Verses, a tale of south Asian migration to Britain that made reference to Islamic and Koranic motifs and figures, drew heavy criticism from some Muslims upon its publication in 1988. In early 1989 the ruler of Iran, the ayatollah Khomeini, pronounced a fatwa, or death sentence, on Rushdie for blasphemy and exhorted Muslims to carry out the decree. The author, then living in London, was forced into hiding for nearly a decade, protected by British police, in a sort of internal exile. He continued to publish, though, including reviews, novels, and a children’s book. In 1998 the Iranian government lifted the fatwa formally, and Rushdie began to move again in public circles, living first in London and then New York, from where he continues to write and work. Rushdie is credited with having created, alongside authors like Anita Desai, a surge of interest in Indian writing in English in the last 20 years.

Rushdie has given many interviews over the past 20 years, some from secret locations during the period of the fatwa, and the subject of his literary influences has figured prominently in these conversations. Critics have also tried to pin down some of these same influences in an effort to describe Rushdie’s imaginative and intellectually agile work. Born in Mumbai (Bombay) and educated at Rugby and

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Cambridge, the Muslim Rushdie has cited a wide array of influences from literature to comic books to the wild worlds created by the “Bollywood” film industry of his birthplace. A voracious reader from his youth, Rushdie once related that some Muslims kiss holy books, but that he grew up kissing every book, from “dictionaries and atlases” to “Enid Blyton novels and Superman comics” (Rushdie 1991, 415). He credits both Indian mythology and such books as The Arabian Nights for some of the fantastical elements in his writing, and his fantastical use of language draws in some part on James Joyce. Rushdie once noted that he always traveled with a copy of Ulysses at hand.

Rushdie has consistently noted his most important influences, those that have fostered his own embrace of sweeping narratives told from multiple perspectives and filled with digressions and asides. Among these were Gunter Grass and Italo Calvino, but especially Nikolai Gogol, the Russian satirist, and Charles Dickens, both of whom, in Rushdie’s opinion, possessed “that ability to be on the edge between the surreal and the real” (Reder 2000, 111). Rushdie has also acknowledged a great debt to two earlier authors known both for their satiric work and their inventiveness: Jonathan Swift and, especially, Laurence Sterne, whose Tristram Shandy was a revelation to Rushdie when he discovered it as an undergraduate. Tristram Shandy, with its nonlinear narrative, eccentric characters, and asides to the reader, must have, Rushdie once admitted, been at least an unconscious influence on Midnight’s Children.

Beyond these varied literary and cultural influences, though, there remains Rushdie’s own life, which has had an equally profound impact on his work. He has tackled the histories of both India and Pakistan, often in thinly veiled yet devastating portraits of figures such as Indira Gandhi, Benazir Bhutto, and Bal Thackeray. The narrator of The Moor’s Last Sigh, a novel written while Rushdie was in hiding, is a condemned man himself, locked away in isolation. With a keen eye for the surreal aspects of what is often a very harsh reality, Rushdie has asserted a place among English literature’s premier exponents, and there is little doubt that future writers, not just from India but from around the world, will soon be uttering his name when interviewers ask them to describe their own influences.

Archives

There are no archival sources currently available.

Printed Sources

Cundy, Catherine. Salman Rushdie (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997). Goonetilleke, D. C. R. A. Salman Rushdie (London: Macmillan, 1998).

Reder, Michael (ed.). Conversations with Salman Rushdie ( Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2000).

Rushdie, Salman. Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism, 1981–1991 (London: Granta Books, 1991).

Andrew Muldoon

RUSSELL, BERTRAND (1872–1970)

Bertrand Russell was born at Ravenscroft in Monmouthshire in western England. Since Russell came from one of the great Whig families, he grew up with a point of view that was both aristocratic and progressive. He matriculated to

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Trinity College, Cambridge, to study mathematics but would serve as a fellow (1895–1901) and eventually lecturer in philosophy. Over the course of his long life and career Russell would be prolific, publishing more than 3,000 works; in addition, more than 40,000 of his letters survive. Russell’s contributions can be divided into two areas; first, he made a significant contribution as an academic philosopher, with much of his energy devoted to understanding the relationships between mathematics and logic; second, his commitment to political causes and social questions meant that his career could be seen as a textbook example of that of a public intellectual.

At the heart of Russell’s philosophical work lay a commitment to empiricism, which would first find expression in his deep interest in the foundations of mathematics. These ideas (with the help of Alfred North Whitehead) culminated in the publication of Principles of Mathematics (1903) and Principia Mathematica (1910–13). Russell rejected the earlier idealist position that what is known is conditioned by the knower, holding instead that logic provided adequate foundations for mathematics. This included developing a definition of number which would be consistent with logical expression. At the same time, Russell also postulated a theory of types (to overcome the contradiction between classes and members) and put forward a theory of definite descriptions. This theory was an attempt to provide a secure means to refer to nonexistent objects without being committed to believing in the reality of their existence.

At the same time, Russell was also interested in broader philosophical issues. In The Problems of Philosophy (1913), he attempted to address a more general line of inquiry. His distinction between knowledge based upon acquaintance and knowledge derived from description would become paradigmatic for some areas of twentiethcentury philosophy. Later, he would respond to Ludwig Wittgenstein’s criticism of his work by creating a theory of logical atomism. At the core of this theory was the premise that the world is made up of atomic facts which can be successfully represented by elementary propositions. Finally, in the effort to provide a foundational basis for sense-data, Russell also developed an idea of neutral monism.

These achievements ensured that Russell would be remembered as a significant philosopher; his extensive involvement with social and political causes meant that his career would be regarded as one of Britain’s major public intellectuals. Most prominent, however, was the loss of Russell’s position at Trinity and his later imprisonment for his objections to the First World War. He also articulated a strong secular point of view with Why I Am Not a Christian (1927). Ultimately Russell became a spokesman in the 1950s and early 1960s for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.

Russell’s development was shaped by his encounter with several key writers. Reading Shelly proved to be very important for his self-understanding; studying Spinoza—through Sir Frederick Pollock’s Spinoza: His Life and Philosophy (1880)— helped him develop a pantheistic view of the universe that was not Christian. Russell came of age prior to the Edwardian period, but like so many other early twentieth-century figures, he was responsive to ideas that challenged conventional attitudes. His social vision was shaped, then, by reading Turgenev’s novels (especially Fathers and Sons), Ibsen’s plays, and Whitman’s Leaves of Grass.

Russell’s growth and maturation as a philosopher came through knowing and interacting with some of the twentieth century’s major analytic philosophers. Although Russell would later reject idealism, John McTaggart Ellis McTaggart was

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an early philosophical influence. Alfred North Whitehead, a fellow at Trinity College, developed and later coauthored Principia Mathematica with him. G. E. Moore’s impact upon Russell is not easy to measure, but it is clear that the latter’s “The Nature of Judgement” (1899) was significant. Finally, Russell’s close and tortured relationship with Ludwig Wittgenstein ensured that he would receive harsh criticism, which ultimately pushed him to develop a theory of atomic factuality.

Friendships also played a formative role in the development of Russell’s social thought and criticism. Most important, Russell’s connection to the world of Bloomsbury meant that he lived and thought among D. H. Lawrence, Aldous Huxley, Leonard and Virginia Woolf, John Maynard Keynes, Clive Bell, Lytton Strachey and other significant minds. While it is difficult to determine the extent of any one of these figures’ impact upon Russell, it is clear that collectively they helped to further his rejection of conservatism and conventional social values.

Archives

Russell Archives, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario.

Humanities Research Center, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.

Printed Sources

Monk, Roy. Bertrand Russell: The Ghost of Madness 1921–1970 (New York: Free Press, 2000).

———.Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude (New York: Free Press, 1996). Moorehead, Caroline. Bertrand Russell. A Life (London: Sinclaire-Stevenson, 1992).

Russell, Bertrand. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell 1872–1967, 3 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967–69).

———.The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell Kenneth Blackwell (ed.), (London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1983–94).

———.The Collected Stories of Bertrand Russell, Barry Feinberg (ed.), (London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1972).

———.The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell. Volume 1: The Private Years, 1884–1914,

Nicholas Griffin (ed.), (London: Routledge, 1992).

Ryan, Alan. Bertrand Russell: A Political Life (London: Allen Lane, 1988).

Stephen L. Keck

RUTH, GEORGE HERMAN (BABE) JR. (1895–1948)

George Herman Ruth was born in Baltimore, Maryland. He began his baseball career as a left-handed catcher at St. Mary’s Industrial School, where his parents placed him at age seven. Under the direction of the Xaverian Catholic Brothers, Ruth received religious, academic, and vocational training. He finished his formal academic curriculum at age 14 and continued to study the trade of shirt-making. In 1914, at age 19, Ruth left St. Mary’s to join the Baltimore Orioles, a minor-league baseball team. He became the team’s youngest member and was appropriately nicknamed “Babe.” Within five months, Ruth moved up to the major leagues and on his way to greatness. At the time of his death, he held 54 major-league records. There is no doubt that St. Mary’s greatly influenced the young boy and the hero he became. He referred to his time at St. Mary’s as the most constructive period of his life and was “as proud of it as any Harvard man is proud of his school” (Ruth and Considine 1948, 13). It was at St. Mary’s that Ruth met Brother Matthias, whom he believed was the greatest man he ever knew. Marshall Smelser summarized the

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importance of Babe Ruth in American life. “No other person outside of public life so stirred our imaginations or so captured our affections” (Smelser 1975, 560). He might well be considered the sport’s greatest celebrity and most enduring legend.

There is little written evidence of Ruth’s literary influences. During his education at St. Mary’s, daily readings from the Bible were one of his earliest exposures to the written word. St. Mary’s had two libraries, scaled to the ages of the boys, who were encouraged to read each night in bed. There are unconfirmed reports that Ruth knew the Nick Carter detective stories and the Frank Merriwell boy athlete stories (Smelser 1975, 146). According to his adopted daughter Julia, “Babe didn’t read much because he was afraid it would damage his eyes. As a result, mother read books and magazines to him” (Beim 1998, 36). Referring to The Babe Ruth Book of Baseball, his ghostwritten autobiography full of baseball tips for kids, Ruth said that it was the only book he’d ever read cover to cover (Wagenheim 1974, 175). During a 1929 interview in Florida, Carl Sandburg is said to have asked him what books he would recommend to young boys if they asked. He simply said that they never ask him that question, only how to play ball. Ruth kept close company with many sportswriters through his relationship with Christy Walsh, a syndicated agent, who arranged payment to Ruth for baseball commentaries used in sports columns. Perhaps the literary works having the most influence on Ruth as an adult were simply the daily newspapers or the thousands of letters he received from fans young and old. “It was the letters of the kids that really touched me” (Ruth and Considine 1948, 232).

Archives

National Baseball Library, A. Bartlett Giamatti Research Center, Cooperstown, New York: scrapbooks and official player files, photo files, published works.

Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore, Maryland: St. Mary’s Industrial School Annual Reports and additional loose material.

Printed Sources

Beim, George, with Julia Ruth Stevens. Babe Ruth: A Daughter’s Portrait (Dallas, Texas: Taylor Publishing Company, 1998).

Ruth, Babe, and Bob Considine. The Babe Ruth Story (New York: American Book-Stratford Press, Inc., 1948).

Ruth, Claire, with Bill Slocum. The Babe and I (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959). Smelser, Marshall. The Life that Ruth Built (New York: Quadrangle/The New York Times

Book Co., 1975).

Wagenheim, Kal. Babe Ruth: His Life and Legend (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974).

Deborah K. O’Brien

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SAID, EDWARD W. (1935–2003)

Born in Jerusalem, this Palestinian-American writer and professor of English and comparative literature at New York’s Columbia University, where he taught from 1963, had a broad influence in European art, literature, cinema, music, and history through the wider “postcolonial” critique that he helped engender. He attended schools in both Jerusalem and the Victoria College in Cairo, receiving his B.A. from Princeton and his M.A. and Ph.D. from Harvard University. He held prestigious professional posts including president of the Modern Language Association (1999) and member of the governing council of the PLO, the Palestine National Council (1977–91). Said is widely regarded by students of literature and cultural studies as one of the founders of the postcolonial movement in criticism and of multiculturalism in politics. Professor Said’s intellectual sophistication, candid political opinions, and articulate nature have made him an important voice in a whole genre of twentieth-century literature by and about exiles, symbolizing the age of the refugee. Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978), the founding text of what eventually was to become “postcolonial theory,” argues that British and French academic scholarship had constructed the “Orient” as “Other,” or the cultural politics of difference, the “subaltern” consciousness. British cultural studies began to explore the multiculturalism of its own society through a similar critique of the ways in which white racism had come to constitute blackness as “Other.” In the more recent Culture and Imperialism (1993), Said espouses a philosophy of making connections, complementarity, and interdependence rather than separation and distinctiveness. The New Circle, an Arab-American magazine, named Professor Said “Arab-American of the Year 2000” for his scholarly and political contributions to society.

The literary influences on Edward Said span a variety of disciplines and English, French, American, and Greek scholars and writers from a variety of countries. Following Antonio Gramsci, cofounder of the Italian Communist Party and author

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of the monumental Prison Notebooks, he treats culture as an instrument of political control in the recurring images of the Other in his works. Said found Gramsci’s thinking about fascism, Marxism, and cultural revolution still relevant to contemporary struggles trying to defeat a resurgent fascistic culture and build a totally new socialist world culture. Said was also influenced by literature, journalism, travel books, and religious and philosophical studies in the production of his broadly historical and anthropological perspective, especially in his most famous work, Orientalism. He holds culpable such authors as Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling, Jane Austen, and Charles Dickens for depicting native peoples as marginally visible, a people without history. He analyzes the impact of English literature from Jane Eyre, Vanity Fair, Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe and Great Expectations to Raymond William’s Culture and Society on the shaping of unconscious imperialist attitudes. Fielding, Richardson, Smollett, and Sterne, to a lesser extent, also helped to support a relationship of domination and authority in English cultural forms, according to Said. Even the literary traditions of Shakespeare, Chaucer, Dante, and the ancient Greeks, such as Homer and Aeschylus (The Persians) impacted this distribution of geopolitical awareness that developed into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological discourses of political, cultural, intellectual, and moral power. For Said, Oriental studies is a composite area of scholarship comprising philology, linguistics, ethnography, and the interpretation of culture through the discovery, recovery, compilation, and translation of Oriental texts. Said espoused Marxist readings of canonical texts, linking varied disciplines to the political arena of gender, race, and class, as well as nation.

Archives

The Edward Said Archive (TESA), New York: Columbia University Libraries Collection. Articles, editorials, interviews, bibliographies, biographies.

The Edward Said Archive, Rhode Island: Brown University Library Collection. Biographies, bibliographies, theoretical relations, historical contexts, political discourse.

Printed Sources

Ashcroft, Bill, and Pal Ahluwalia. Edward Said: The Paradox of Identity (London and New York: Routledge, 1999).

Bové, Pail A. (ed.). Edward Said and the Work of the Critic: Speaking Truth to Power (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000).

Hart, William D. Edward Said and the Religious Effects of Culture (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

Said, Edward. Beginnings: Intention and Method, reprint ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978). Won the first annual Lionel Trilling Award given at Columbia University.

———.Culture and Imperialism. The T. S. Eliot Lectures at the University of Kent 1985 (New York: Knopf/Random House, 1993).

———.Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1966).

———.Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul; Toronto: Random House, 1978). Runner-up in the criticism category of the National Book Critics Circle Award.

———.Out of Place: A Memoir (New York: Knopf, 1999).

———.Reflections on Exile and Other Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000).

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———. “Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question,” Race & Class 29, 3 (Winter 1988), 23–39.

Varadharajan, Asha. Exotic Parodies: Subjectivity in Adorno, Said, and Spivak (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).

Elena M. De Costa

SANDBURG, CARL AUGUST (1878–1967)

Carl Sandburg was born in Galesburg, Illinois. He studied at Lombard College in Galesburg (1898–1902) but did not receive a degree. Sandburg was not only a nationally renowned poet, but a biographer, folk singer, and lecturer. Sandburg is chiefly remembered as a voice of the disenfranchised and overlooked, a radical populist, and a Democrat. In his first widely acclaimed collections, Chicago Poems (1916), Cornhuskers (1918), and Smoke and Steel (1920), he used the vernacular of the common man and woman and the free-verse style of Walt Whitman to ruminate on the plight of the poor, celebrate the spirit of the masses, and depict the landscapes of the Midwest, from urban streets to rural fields. Sandburg, who often peppered his poetry with folk songs and political commentary, shifted to biography in 1926 with the two-volume Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years. A four-volume sequel on Lincoln, The War Years, received the Pulitzer Prize in 1939 and continued to bring Sandburg a wide audience. By the time his Complete Poems received the Pulitzer in 1950, he was one of America’s most widely known and beloved poets. Though his critical reputation suffered somewhat after his death, Sandburg remains one of the best-known American poets and the quintessential poetic chronicler of America’s geographic and spiritual heartland.

An early and seminal influence on Sandburg and his work was his professor at Lombard, Philip Green Wright, who paid for the publication of Sandburg’s first collection of poetry, Reckless Ecstasy (1904). After Wright, Harriet Monroe, editor of Poetry: A Magazine of Verse, began to publish Sandburg’s poems and to encourage him to write free-verse poetry with homely speech and subject matter, much like Sandburg’s literary forbear Walt Whitman, on whom Sandburg gave many public lectures. Whitman’s subject matter and robust persona greatly influenced Sandburg, shaping both his work and his performance. Harriet Monroe’s assistance helped to launch Sandburg’s career and make him a leader in Chicago’s literary renaissance along with Sherwood Anderson, whom Sandburg deeply admired (Sandburg 1968, 260), and Edgar Lee Masters, with whom Sandburg enjoyed a long literary friendship. Masters credited Sandburg with much of the inspiration for Spoon River Antholog y. Another member of the Chicago Renaissance, Theodore Dreiser, shared Sandburg’s interest in the urban poor, if not the poet’s optimism. Sandburg was also influenced by the Illinois poet Archibald MacLeish, whom he called a “major poet.” Another seminal influence on his work was George Bernard Shaw, whom Sandburg described as “for the ages” and whose radical politics inspired Sandburg’s own populist poetry (Sandburg 1968, 66). Like Harriet Monroe, poet Amy Lowell was a close friend of Sandburg’s and worked hard to advance his art and reputation. Perhaps the most important personal and literary influence on Sandburg was Abraham Lincoln, who served not only as one of the poet’s chief intellectual and biographical influences throughout his life, but as a metaphor for both America’s tragedies and triumphs (Sandburg 1968, 398). It

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is his spirit, even more than Whitman’s, that infuses the poetry, prose, and song of Carl Sandburg.

Archives

Carl Sandburg Collection, University of Illinois Library. Champaign-Urbana, Illinois: The major repository of Sandburg’s papers.

Conemara, Carl Sandburg National Historic Site. Flat Rock, North Carolina: personal effects, manuscripts, correspondence.

Carl Sandburg Collection, Clifton Walter Barrett Library of American Literature, University of Virginia. Charlottesville, Virginia: original manuscripts and correspondence.

Printed Sources

Niven, Penelope. Carl Sandburg: A Biography (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1991). Sandburg, Carl. The Letters of Carl Sandburg, Herbert Mitgang (ed.), (New York: Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich, 1968).

Todd R. Robinson

SANGER, MARGARET LOUISA HIGGINS (1879–1966)

“Maggie” Higgins was born in Corning, New York, the sixth of eleven children of a freethinking Irish immigrant, Michael Hennessy Higgins, and his traditional, submissive wife, Anne Purcell. After he engaged socialist atheist Robert Ingersoll to speak at a public meeting in Corning in 1894, the locally predominant Roman Catholic community boycotted the Higgins stonecutting business and ostracized the family. She continued to attend the local parish school at St. Mary’s Church, enduring the taunts of her teachers and classmates until 1896, when, with financial help from her older sisters, she was able transfer to Claverack College and Hudson River Institute, a Protestant boarding school far from her detested Corning. For the first time in her life she had regular access to secular books. Corning had no public library. After graduating in 1900, she enrolled in the nursing program at the White Plains, New York, hospital, because she could not afford to study medicine. In 1902 she married Jewish architect William Sanger and was credentialed as a nurse. From 1910 to 1912 she was a nurse midwife to impoverished women on Manhattan’s Lower East Side and in 1916 opened America’s first birth control clinic. In 1920 she divorced Sanger and in 1922 married millionaire J. Noah H. Slee. In 1922 she founded the American Birth Control League and in 1923 the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau. In 1939 the two merged into the Birth Control Federation of America, which, in 1942, against her wishes, changed its name to the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

Her father read to his children from Gulliver’s Travels and taught them phrenology, history, and popular pseudoscience. She never forgave him for sexually tyrannizing her mother, but she admired his leftist radical iconoclasm and adopted as her political and ideological heroes many of his own, such as Eugene Debs, Henry George, and Ingersoll. The Sangers were already involved with both the Socialist Party and the International Workers of the World when they moved to Manhattan in 1910. There they frequented Mabel Dodge’s Salon, patronized the Francisco Ferrer Center, known as the “Modern School,” and associated with such socialists and anarchists as Alexander Berkman, Theodore Dreiser, Will Durant, Max Eastman, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, Emma Goldman, Bill Haywood, Walter Lipp-

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mann, Jack London, Eugene O’Neill, Man Ray, John Reed, Upton Sinclair, Rose Pastor Stokes, Frank Tannenbaum, and Carlo Tresca. Through Goldman, she learned of Thomas Malthus. During this time she also became familiar with the feminist theories of Susan B. Anthony, Carrie Chapman Catt, Matilda Joslyn Gage, Ellen Key, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and especially Charlotte Perkins Gilman. In England, she met Havelock Ellis in 1914 and Marie Stopes in 1915. Ellis became her mentor and introduced her to the writings of Olive Schreiner and Alice Stockham. After 1920, the socialists Ellis and Sanger conspired against the patrician eugenicist Stopes. Sanger’s entire circle considered the theories of Sigmund Freud a major topic throughout the 1910s and 1920s.

Archives

In 1985 the New York University Department of History began “The Margaret Sanger Papers Project” (http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/) to locate, catalog, edit, microfilm, and publish all her papers and correspondence. Smith College and the Library of Congress own the only two large collections. The remainder is scattered among hundreds of repositories and private owners.

Printed Sources

Chesler, Ellen. Woman of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America

(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).

Coigney, Virginia. Margaret Sanger: Rebel with a Cause (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1969).

Douglas, Emily Taft. Margaret Sanger: Pioneer of the Future (Garrett Park, Md.: Garrett Park Press, 1975).

Grant, George. Killer Angel: A Short Biography of Planned Parenthood’s Founder, Margaret Sanger (Nashville: Highland, 2001).

Gray, Madeline. Margaret Sanger: A Biography of the Champion of Birth Control (New York: Marek, 1979).

Kennedy, David M. Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970).

Lader, Lawrence. The Margaret Sanger Story and the Fight for Birth Control (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1975).

Sanger, Margaret, The Margaret Sanger Papers: Collected Documents Series, Esther Katz, Cathy Moran Hajo, and Peter C. Engelman (eds.), (Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1996). 18 microfilm reels plus printed guide.

———.The Margaret Sanger Papers: Documents from the Sophia Smith Collection and College Archives, Smith College, Esther Katz, Peter Engelman, Cathy Moran Hajo, and Anke Voss Hubbard (eds.), (Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1994). 83 microfilm reels plus 526-page guide.

———.The Papers of Margaret Sanger. (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1976). 145 microfilm reels.

Eric v.d. Luft

SANTAYANA, GEORGE (1863–1952)

Born in Madrid to Josefina Sturgis and Augustin Ruiz de Santayana, George remained a Spanish citizen with a global influence. Santayana lived with his American relatives after the physical separation (not a divorce) of his parents. Returning to Boston, Josefina raised the children of her first marriage. In 1872, Santayana

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