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Dictionary of Literary Influences

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DICTIONARY OF

LITERARY

INFLUENCES:

The Twentieth Century, 1914–2000

John Powell

Editor

GREENWOOD PRESS

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY INFLUENCES

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY INFLUENCES

The Twentieth Century, 1914–2000

Edited by John Powell

GREENWOOD PRESS

Westport, Connecticut • London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dictionary of literary influences : the twentieth century, 1914–2000 / edited by John Powell. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–313–31784–4 (alk. paper)

1. Celebrities—Books and reading—Europe—History—20th century. 2. Celebrities— Books and reading—America—History—20th century. 3. Civilization, Modern—20th century. 4. Intellectuals—Books and reading—Europe—History—20th century.

5. Intellectuals—Books and reading—America—History—20th century. I. Powell, John, 1954– II. Biographical dictionary of literary influences.

Z1039.C45D53 2004 028'.9'0904—dc22 2003049318

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.

Copyright © 2004 by John Powell

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2003049318

ISBN: 0–313–31784–4

First published in 2004

Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881

An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

www.greenwood.com

Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the

Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National

Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984).

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CONTENTS

Preface

vii

Acknowledgments

xiii

Introduction

xv

The Dictionary

1

Index

573

About the Contributors

609

v

PREFACE

This work is a continuation of the research begun with Biographical Dictionary of Literary Inf luences: The Nineteenth Century, 1800–1914 (Greenwood, 2001). In that volume, an international team of scholars examined the reading habits of 271 men and women who played a prominent role in shaping Western culture. In this work, 156 contributors from 19 countries have done the same for 385 of the Western world’s great cultural figures.

DESIGN

The design of the first volume was maintained, with entries arranged alphabetically and composed with an eye toward factual introduction and guidance in research. Contributors were asked to conduct their research with two principal goals in mind: first, to provide a concise summary of literary inf luences; and second, to provide clear direction for further research. Each entry includes three components:

1.An introductory section provides basic biographical data, including educational information and a concise assessment of the contribution of the subject to the development of Western culture. In order to maximize the space available for the project’s goals, standard biographical information has been limited. It has been assumed that a researcher wishing to know, for instance, the titles and years of publication of an author’s complete oeuvre or a detailed listing of offices held or academic appointments, will consult a regular biographical dictionary.

2.The body of each article is devoted to an assessment of specific literary works and authors known to have influenced the subject. The emphasis is factual and specific, though a succinct analysis may be included if the research warrants. As evidence regarding reading habits varies widely, so does the length and nature of the articles themselves. Ironically, advanced technologies of the twentieth century have often led to

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Preface

less introspection, less information being recorded, and, in recent years, more emphasis on aural or visual influences.

3.A bibliography includes principal archival collections, standard biographical resources, and published materials relating specifically to the subject’s reading. This section is necessarily uneven from entry to entry, as some figures left excellent sources for reconstructing their reading past, others almost none, and most an odd collection that requires careful reconstruction from a variety of sources.

The Literary Influences project does not indicate that printed mediums are the only, or even the principal, means of transmitting ideas and shaping culture. Many of the cultural giants treated here never wrote a book or published a poem— though a surprisingly large percentage did. All of them read, however. It is the purpose of this project to suggest the broad parameters of literary influence, in its broadest sense, upon the full array of cultural characteristics. While a few preliminary observations will be made in the introduction about the relationship between reading and culture, this work is meant to be suggestive and foundational. On the basis of articles on men and women of influence from widely different fields, scholars may eventually help us all to understand why, for instance, Octavio Paz and Robert Oppenheimer were both drawn to the Bhagavad-gita; or why Steven Spielberg, so militantly anticlassic in his reading, went on to produce such traditionally classic films as Schindler’s List and Saving Private Ryan.

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION

Selecting men and women for inclusion was more difficult for the twentieth century than for the nineteenth. As in the first volume, we began by identifying the people most responsible for the general cultural development of Europe, the Anglo-British world, and the Americas between 1914 and 2000. To be included, a figure

1.must have influenced Western culture in an important way during this time period;

2.must have exerted some influence beyond the local or regional borders of his or her home region; and

3.must have defined his or her career by substantial achievement during the period.

Once again, choosing the top tier of entries was relatively easy. Albert Einstein, Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King Jr., and John Paul II were likely to make anyone’s list. The defining madness of World War II and the Cold War threat of global destruction turned many political leaders, good and bad, into figures of enormous cultural importance: Winston Churchill, Adolf Hitler, Josef Stalin, John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher, and Mikhail Gorbachev immediately come to mind.

After the top rank, however, the possibilities were bewildering. Opportunities for learning and avenues of cultural expression were so much greater in the twentieth century than in the nineteenth that influence must be measured in increasingly diverse spheres that often seem to be worlds apart from one another, though they form integral parts of a common culture. Western culture was increasingly shaped

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Preface

by nonwestern influences, though these tended to be diffuse, noncanonical and unevenly spread. Given the reach of European imperialism in the twentieth century, two world wars, massive international migration, and a general Western openness to fresh ideas, Asian and African figures often did much to shape the thought of Western cultural figures. This influence has been acknowledged by the inclusion of, among others, Mohandas Gandhi, Wole Soyinka, and Akira Kurosawa. The case might easily be made for more nonwestern influence, particularly among minority and immigrant communities, and among the general population toward the end of the twentieth century.

As culture evolved in the twentieth century, so did the forms of cultural influence and the degree to which they might be embodied in the lives of individuals. The popularity of professional poets declined precipitously after World War I, and the teaching of philosophy in schools and universities was steadily eroded. Similarly, classical musicians no longer enjoyed the iconic status accorded them in the nineteenth century. On the other hand, more highly advanced and broader applications of technology enhanced the potential cultural influence of scientists, entertainers, and those working in the media generally. In some cases, technology created new categories of influence, including filmmaking and aviation. Professional sport flourished in the twentieth century, taking on a cultural role for which there was no precedent in the previous century. The force of religious thought and conviction declined, but unevenly, and clearly not permanently. Adding further to the difficulty in selecting eminent individuals was the overwhelming influence of the technological mediums themselves. The exploration of space profoundly affected the world in the later twentieth century, but it is not clear who exactly should get the credit—scientists who developed pathbreaking but often isolated technologies, politicians who created space agencies and committed national resources, or the astronauts themselves. News reports from the most remote areas of the earth stream into homes every minute of every day, keeping Western citizens closely informed of local, national, and world affairs in a way that was impossible to imagine even 30 years ago. This access to information is of the utmost significance in democracies that thrive upon education, but it is often difficult to isolate the essential development or achievement. I still wish I could include some one who invented television and the Internet.

In choosing among representatives of the diverse ways in which Western culture has been shaped in the twentieth century, we have erred on the side of traditional notions of influence. There are more politicians and military figures here than many might wish to see in a study of “culture.” Yet one need only observe the radically different cultural courses of Eastern and Western Europe to see that people like Stalin, Tito, Attlee, de Gaulle, Adenauer, and Brandt altered the cultural lives of tens of millions. High culture remains well represented, most notably among novelists and painters. I have found room for poets Rupert Brooke and Allen Ginsberg, but none for John Ashbery, recently referred to by Harold Bloom as America’s “greatest living poet.”1

Architects, inventors, business figures, and scientists are included but probably underrepresented, mainly because their links to print culture are less explicit. Popular culture is significantly represented, but still in its more elite forms. Film directors have gotten the nod over actors, though cases could certainly be made for including the latter. Some athletes are included—Babe Ruth, Jesse Owens,

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