Dictionary of Literary Influences

Lewis, John Llewellyn

the United Mine Workers (UMW) local. Lewis’s activities in Panama caught the attention of American Federation of Labor (AFL) President Samuel Gompers, for whom Lewis worked as an AFL organizer from 1911 until 1916. Lewis left the AFL to work at UMW headquarters in Indianapolis, where he rose from statistician to vice president and then to acting president in 1919. He was elected UMW president in 1921 and consolidated union power throughout the 1920s. The election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the institution of his New Deal programs sparked a reversal of early Depression-era union fortunes. Lewis successfully portrayed himself as a tough but moderate leader of an increasingly militant union and became the nation’s most visible labor leader and a potential candidate for the presidency. Lewis broke from the AFL and cofounded the Conference of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1935. As CIO leader, Lewis was instrumental in the success of the United Auto Workers’ (UAW) sit-down strike against General Motors in 1937. After 1937 Lewis’s overall prominence in the labor movement waned, but he remained the most visible national labor leader, breaking with Roosevelt, leading a highly criticized UMW strike in 1943, and blasting mine safety standards in the aftermath of mine disasters in Centralia, Illinois, and West Frankfort, Illinois, in 1947 and 1950. Lewis retained the UMW presidency until retiring in 1960.

Lewis’s limited formal education belies his gift for oration and writing. There is disagreement on the part of Lewis’s biographers as to how he developed his command of language, evidenced by his book The Miners’ Fight for American Standards.

One biographer argues that Lewis’s wife, Myrta, “organized Lewis’s reading habits” and was “the most important single force in the life of John L. Lewis” (Alinsky 1949, 17). Other biographers reject this notion, pointing to Lewis’s involvement with productions at the Lucas Opera House and citing Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations and the Bible as Lewis’s most consistent references. According to these biographers, when he was older Lewis’s primary reading fare included military history, westerns, mysteries, and the magazine American Heritage (Dubofsky and Van Tine 1986, 16). Certainly Lewis’s attention to labor issues stemmed largely from his own father’s activities. One definite influence in this area was Samuel Gompers, whom Lewis seems to have viewed as both a model of what a powerful labor leader could be and also as a contrast from which to develop his own leadership qualities. In terms of his approach to organizing, however, Lewis developed his own style. By the time of Lewis’s ascendancy to the UMW presidency, he had already developed the intellectual basis that would undergird his actions over the next three decades.

Archives

State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison: The John L. Lewis papers, 1879–1969. United Mine Workers of America Archives, Washington, D.C.: official UMW and CIO

papers of John L. Lewis.

Printed Sources

Alinsky, Saul. John L. Lewis: An Unauthorized Biography (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1949).

Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Warren Van Tine. John L. Lewis: A Biography, abridged ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).

Lewis, John L. The Miners’ Fight for American Standards (Indianapolis: The Bell Publishing Company, 1925).

Phil Huckelberry

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Lewis, Sinclair

LEWIS, SINCLAIR (1885–1951)

Sinclair Lewis was born and reared in Sauk Centre, Minnesota. He attended preparatory school at the Oberlin Academy in Oberlin, Ohio, for six months (1902–3) before entering Yale University (1903–6; 1907–8). Lewis left Yale at the beginning of his senior year, although he eventually returned and graduated. During this hiatus from school he engaged in a variety of tasks, including living and working for a month at Helicon Hall, the communal home established near Englewood, New Jersey, by Upton Sinclair. There were already indications of the direction that Lewis’s life would take. On a visit to Sauk Centre in the summer of 1905, he envisioned writing a novel that would be a biting exposé of life in small-town America. The novel was published as Main Street in 1920. It was a popular success, and it established the trajectory of his literary contributions. In his heyday, Lewis became known as a capable satirist, one who could wield his pen to expose the fictions of life in twentieth-century America. He followed with other novels, including Babbitt (1922), which was a critique of self-promoting middle-class values, Arrowsmith (1925), which undermined the supposed objectivity of science and medicine, and Elmer Gantry (1927), which gave an unflattering portrait of American fundamentalism. Lewis was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize in 1926, although he declined to accept it, suggesting that his works were designed to undermine dominant images of American life rather than to uphold them, which the award was intended to recognize. In 1930, he became the first American to receive the Nobel Prize for literature.

As a boy, Lewis enjoyed the romances of Thomas Malory and Sir Walter Scott (Grebstein 1962, 20), and he remained an avid fan of Charles Dickens, from whom he gained an early appreciation of social criticism and whom he admired for his expert creation of lively characters (Light 1975, 21–22). Lewis likewise venerated the novelist H. G. Wells, whom he considered “the greatest living novelist” (Light 1975, 22). Lewis especially enjoyed Wells’s The History of Mr. Polly (1910) and TonoBungay (1909), which Lewis identified as having a more profound influence on him than any other work of fiction (Light 1975, 23). Wells’s reform impulses are evident in these novels and Lewis’s early works reflect a similar style and themes, indicating the enormity of Wells’s influence. Another significant literary influence on Lewis was his contemporary, H. L. Mencken (1880–1956), to whom Lewis dedicated Elmer Gantry “with profound admiration.” Mencken, who distrusted “Middle America” and took issue with many of the same subjects as Lewis, including the Midwest, preachers, and politicians, became a role model for him. In the final years of Lewis’s life, Mencken urged him to revive his flagging career by re-focusing on his satirical gifts, suggesting that the United States “swarms” with subjects, such as bogus experts and idiotic labor leaders, for him to explore (Light 1975, 26).

Archives

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. St. Cloud State University Archives, St. Cloud, Minn.

Printed Sources

Bloom, Harold (ed.). Modern Critical Views: Sinclair Lewis (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987).

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Grebstein, Sheldon Norman. Sinclair Lewis (New York: Twayne, 1962).

Light, Martin. The Quixotic Vision of Sinclair Lewis (West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1975). An excellent source for Lewis’s literary influences. Light includes an informative chapter entitled “Reading.”

Lingeman, Richard. Sinclair Lewis: Rebel from Main Street (New York: Random House, 2002).

Schorer, Mark. Sinclair Lewis (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1963).

Scott Lupo

LINDBERGH, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1902–1974)

Charles Lindbergh was born in Detroit, Michigan, the only son of Charles August Lindbergh, a lawyer and liberal Republican congressman for Minnesota, and his wife, Evangeline Lodge Land, a science teacher and daughter of a prominent Detroit dentist. An undistinguished student, from the age of eight Lindbergh almost annually switched schools in Washington, D.C., California, and Little Falls, Minnesota. Entering the University of Wisconsin at Madison in 1920 as an engineering student, Lindbergh excelled only in the Reserve Officer Training Corps and was expelled in 1922. After some time barnstorming, Lindbergh joined the Army Air Service, acquiring systematic study habits and graduating first in his class at the Kelly Field Advanced Flying School, and then became an airmail pilot. On May 21, 1927, Lindbergh instantaneously became a national hero and international celebrity when he completed the first nonstop transatlantic flight, from New York to Paris, in thirty-three hours in his monoplane the Spirit of St. Louis.

In 1929 Lindbergh married Anne Spencer Morrow, the literary daughter of a prominent New York investment banker and Republican politician. Lindbergh subsequently undertook pioneering flights in the Americas, Asia, Europe, and Africa to develop commercial aviation routes and was an early supporter of research in rocket technology. His growing interest in medical science led him to develop a perfusion pump, whose invention facilitated future organ transplants. Tragedy struck in 1932 when the Lindberghs’ two-year-old son Charles was kidnapped and murdered, impelling them to live in Britain and France until 1939. In the later 1930s Lindbergh believed German airpower greatly surpassed that of any other European state and feared Britain and France could not prevail in a European conflict, which would only destroy Western civilization. Lindbergh strongly supported his country’s aviation defense buildup, but—perhaps influenced by his father’s vigorous World War I opposition to intervention—when World War II began he joined the antiinterventionist America First Committee, which opposed United States aid to the Allied nations or entry into the war. Ill-considered speeches permanently damaged his reputation, generating lingering charges he was anti-Semitic and pro-Nazi. Denied a commission after Pearl Harbor, as a civilian Lindbergh developed and tested military aircraft and in 1944 flew 50 combat missions in the South Pacific. In his final decades Lindbergh remained deeply involved in medical and aviation research, the development of commercial flying, and conservation.

A brilliantly innovative flyer and scientist, Lindbergh was a convinced rationalist without political acumen or a sense of self-preservation, traits his wife later attributed to the fact that he “was not a great reader” (Herrmann 1992, 322). Lindbergh spoke and understood no language but English but in his teens devoured tales of Arctic exploration, flying sagas, and the Yukon frontier poems of

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Robert W. Service, unsophisticated tastes that embarrassed his Smith College– educated fiancée, herself a respected writer, as Lindbergh himself would also eventually become. Lindbergh’s marriage greatly extended his literary range; visiting his younger sister-in-law’s freshman English class, he apparently commented knowledgeably on Paradise Lost (Milton 1993, 208). In the 1930s the Social Darwinist outlook and writings of Lindbergh’s Nobel Prize–winning scientific collaborator, Dr. Alexis Carrel, apparently reinforced his almost obsessive beliefs on race, eugenics, and the need to preserve Western civilization against communism and barbarism. Carrel’s surprising mysticism perhaps inspired Lindbergh’s similarly paradoxical interest in the supernatural and nonrational. While he believed “no one culture or religion had a monopoly on truth” (Berg 1998, 558), the teachings of both Jesus Christ and Lao Tzu profoundly influenced Lindbergh, and from the 1930s onward he explored the tenets of most major faiths and thinkers, featuring a medley of readings from several at his funeral. Lindbergh’s later interest in conservation was also fueled both by his increasingly profound regard for the writings of David Henry Thoreau and by his growing feeling that the technological advances he had helped pioneer were in numerous respects environmentally and socially detrimental.

Archives

Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn.: Lindbergh’s personal papers, together with those of his wife.

Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, Mo.: Lindbergh’s papers relating to aviation and rocket research, 1927–33.

Printed Sources

Berg, A. Scott. Lindbergh (New York: Putnam, 1998). Best biographical source.

Herrmann, Dorothy. Anne Morrow Lindbergh: A Gift for Life (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992).

Lindbergh, Charles A. Autobiography of Values (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977).

———. The Wartime Journals of Charles A. Lindbergh (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970).

Milton, Joyce. Loss of Eden: A Life of Charles and Anne Morrow Lindbergh (New York: Harper Collins, 1993).

Priscilla Roberts

LIPPMANN, WALTER (1889–1974)

Born in New York City to Jacob and Daisy Lippmann, second-generation highly assimilated German Jews, Walter had a privileged childhood of wealth, European travel, and education by private tutors. The first chapter, entitled “The Only Child,” in Ronald Steel’s biography, Walter Lippmann and the American Century

(1980), clearly reveals the influences on Lippmann’s life. In 1915 he remarked that a “man’s philosophy is his autobiography; you may read in it the story of the conflict with life.” In time his conflict consisted of politics and political philosophy, the search for the good society and human control over the forces of modernism. Because of his cosmopolitan lifestyle, Lippmann was comfortable with gentile norms. While scholars have debated Judaism’s impact, Lippmann was never concerned about having a Jewish heritage.

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He entered Harvard as a member of the famous class of 1910. From his early years, Lippmann was an idealist tempered by twentieth-century war, politics, and economic depression. William James and George Santayana shaped Lippmann’s undergraduate experiences: James’s pragmatism liberated him from previous dogma and inclined him toward instrumental reason; Santayana provided an aristocratic attitude based on philosophical materialism and skepticism. Lippmann served as Santayana’s teaching assistant. Later Lippmann wrote, “I love James more than any other man I ever saw but increasingly I find Santayana inescapable.” Santayana’s influence was lifelong.

After leaving Harvard, Lippmann was involved in socialist politics. He wrote about two dozen books of social and cultural criticism. Over the years they were critical of mass democracy and a civic morality that bordered on ethical relativism. Lippmann was a speechwriter for the American delegation to the Peace Conference at end of the Great War. He helped write President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Point Speech. He was a columnist for several New York newspapers; he did not write news stories. His greatest influence came from his more reflective pieces on the varied significance of passing events. He was a close student of American life. Married twice, he never had children.

Lippmann began his syndicated column, “Today and Tomorrow,” in 1931 for the New York Herald-Tribune. The relationship lasted for nearly forty years. Passing judgment on politics, he correctly noted the development of something before it was generally recognized, such as the cold war and the policy disaster that was the Vietnam War. His initial low opinion of Franklin D. Roosevelt was an example of one his few errors in judgment. While celebrating American ideals, the nation’s tendency toward moral self-indulgence and smug acceptance of conventional wisdom disappointed him. In his way, his writings prepared the American public to understand the world and the cost of global leadership.

Generally, Lippmann’s books dealt with the conjunction of political theory, politics, and philosophy. From The Stakes of Diplomacy (1915) to Essays in Public Philosophy (1955), he moved from pragmatism to higher law tradition. He intellectually migrated from pragmatism’s liberal reform to the transcendent conservatism of natural law. His core concern was the legitimacy and duty that constituted authority, an order that transcended mere historicism. Lippmann’s desire for a meaningful scheme of values endeared him to his readers. In that desire he combined the wisdom of his two major influences on his life, William James and George Santayana.

Archives

The Lippmann Papers are in the Sterling Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, a massive collection of original manuscripts and letters.

Printed Sources

Blum, D. Steven. Walter Lippmann, Cosmopolitanism in the Century of Total War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984). A brief, thoughtful analysis of Lippmann’s views on foreign policy.

Diggins, John Patrick. “From Pragmatism to Natural Law: Walter Lippmann’s Quest for the Foundations of Legitimacy,” Political Theory 19 (November 1991), 519–37. In a close critical analysis, Lippmann’s intellectual odyssey is traced from reformist liberalism to a conservative defense of an eternal verity. At the end as a conservative, Lippmann defended liberty and the course of reform.

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Forcey, Charles. The Crossroads of Liberalism: Croly, Weyl, Lippmann and the Progressive Era, 1900–1925 (New York: Oxford, 1961). Deals with Lippmann’s contribution to the New Republic magazine and its influence on future liberal reform.

Steel, Ronald. Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1980). Nearly a definitive biography.

Donald K. Pickens

LLOSA, MARIO VARGAS (1936– )

Mario Vargas Llosa was born in Arequipa, Peru. He spent his early childhood in Bolivia, returning to Peru at the age of 10. His strict father enrolled him in a Lima military academy, hoping to cure young Mario of his love for literature and poetry. However, Vargas Llosa continued to read and write at a frenzied pace. Some of his short stories appeared in the late fifties, garnering the young college graduate an invitation to Paris from a French literary magazine. For the next decade, Vargas Llosa would live in Paris while he established his career as an author. His first novel, The Time of the Hero, appeared in 1963. The Green House (1966) and Conversation in the Cathedral (1969) followed, winning Vargas Llosa recognition as an important Latin American writer and intellectual.

With other intellectuals from developing countries, Vargas Llosa shared a generational passion for indigenous culture and socialist concerns about third world exploitation and social injustice at home. However, even during this time, Vargas Llosa identified with the plight of the human condition inside political rhetoric—a concern that ideological excesses could impinge upon human rights. This position brought Vargas Llosa into disfavor with the more extreme elements of the Left.

Vargas Llosa returned to Peru in 1974, where he continues to make his main residence. Works that followed included Captain Pantoja and the Special Service (1973) and Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter (1977). Perhaps his best-known book, The War at the End of the World, appeared in 1981. By the late 1970s to early 1980s, Vargas Llosa had secured a place as one of the preeminent figures of the Latin American literary boom and as one of the world’s few truly international literary figures. Always concerned with the state of his native Peru, Vargas Llosa became more and more involved with political activity. This engagement culminated in his running for the presidency of Peru in 1990. After losing the election to Alberto Fujimori, Vargas Llosa recounted the experience in his book A Fish in the Water (1993). Vargas Llosa left politics and returned to his life as a writer.

Like many writers from the underdeveloped world, Vargas Llosa was attracted to intellectuals who stressed the importance of one’s indigenous culture. Vargas Llosa’s native heroes were essayist José Carlos Mariátegui, ethnologist José María Arguedas, poet César Moro, and playwright Sebastián Salazar Bondy. The Marxist and nativist convictions of their works reflected the deep convictions of many intellectual Peruvians. In Vargas Llosa’s case, the existentialist writings of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus provided the necessary human element to overly strident political discourse. In addition to politically committed literature, Vargas Llosa also loved the world literary masterpieces he read so avidly in his youth. The young bibliophile Vargas Llosa absorbed virtually the entire canon of classic nineteenthand twentieth-century literature, especially the entertaining adventure stories of French writer Alexandre Dumas (more, perhaps, for their value as expert

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entertainment than depth). Among more contemporary writers, William Faulkner (The Wild Palms and the entire Yoknapatawpha saga) deeply impressed the young Peruvian. Vargas Llosa’s lifelong fascination with nineteenth-century French novelist Gustave Flaubert and his classic work Madame Bovary is a favorite topic of discussion with the author himself (see Vargas Llosa’s own Perpetual Org y). Vargas Llosa’s work may be described as a combination of Peruvian subject material within highly sophisticated literary forms of international origin.

Archives

Mario Vargas Llosa Papers, Firestone Library, Princeton University.

Printed Sources

Castro-Klaren, Sara. Understanding Mario Vargas Llosa (Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1990).

Kristal, Efrain. Temptation of the Word: The Novels of Mario Vargas Llosa (Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press, 1998).

Vargas Llosa, Mario. A Fish in the Water, Helen Lane (trans.), (New York: Faber and Faber, 1993).

———. The Perpetual Org y: Gustave Flaubert and Madame Bovary, Helen Lane (trans.), (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986).

Charles Allan

LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID (1863–1945)

David Lloyd George was born in Manchester, England, of Welsh parents. His father, a schoolmaster, died in 1864. He grew up in North Wales in the bilingual home of his uncle, a shoemaker and lay preacher, and attended a National (Anglican) School from 1866 to 1877. Raised as a Baptist, he became an agnostic at 18 but throughout life was inspired by Nonconformism. He qualified as a solicitor in 1884, practicing law in North Wales until elected to Parliament in 1890 as a Liberal. Previously a radical backbencher and opponent of the Boer War (1899–1902), in 1905 he became trade minister in the Liberal cabinet and in 1908 chancellor of the exchequer. He sponsored many reforms and is recognized as one of the founders of the welfare state. In the First World War Lloyd George was munitions minister (1915–16) and war minister (1916), but in 1916 broke with his Liberal colleagues over policy and became prime minister of a coalition cabinet (1916–22). Famed as “the man who won the war,” he represented Great Britain at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Out of office he remained politically active, leading the Liberal party between 1926 and 1931. He became Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor in 1945.

Belittled by university-trained politicians for his modest formal education, Lloyd George was in fact well-read. Tutored by his autodidact uncle and a cultured schoolmaster, he avidly absorbed geography, history, biography, and literature. Notes of his youthful reading are preserved in his papers.

From his deceased father Lloyd George inherited a substantial library, supplemented by his uncle’s well-stocked bookshelves. In childhood and adolescence he read William Shakespeare, John Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, Edward Gibbon, Sir Walter Scott, Thomas Babington Macaulay, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, among many others. The American Civil War and the life of Abraham Lincoln were special

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interests. Iconoclast Thomas Carlyle, skeptic Ernest Renan, and positivist Frederic Harrison influenced his religious and philosophical thinking. He was thoroughly familiar with the Bible, however skeptical of its veracity, and could accurately quote scores of passages.

Young Lloyd George was familiar with the writings of social thinkers from Karl Marx to John Ruskin to Henry George, as well as eighteenthand nineteenthcentury economists including Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill. Later, sociologist Seebowm Rowntree and radical journalist/politician Charles Masterman influenced his thinking on social issues. Lloyd George’s best-loved work of fiction was the socially conscious novel Les Miserables by Victor Hugo, a dog-eared cheap edition of which he carried with him. He was also fond of novelists Charles Dickens, Alexandre Dumas, Charles Reade, Charles Kingsley, and Robert Louis Stevenson. He admitted to being bored by Jane Austen, Anthony Trollope, and George Eliot and thought Joseph Conrad gloomy. He enjoyed traditional Welsh poetry. His preferred English-language poets were John Milton, Robert Burns, and Lord Byron, but he expressly disliked the twentieth-century poets Edith Sitwell and T. S. Eliot.

In Lloyd George’s later life, the serious reading of his formative years was increasingly replaced by recreational reading of popular fiction, especially mystery and adventure novels and Wild West tales. The American western novelist Zane Grey was a favorite.

Archives

Lloyd George Papers, House of Lords Record Office, London. Papers from the 1880s to 1945, including reading notes and jottings.

Lloyd George Papers, National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth. Correspondence and notebooks, 1870s to 1940s.

Printed Sources

Cregier, Don M. Bounder from Wales: Lloyd George’s Career Before the First World War

(Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1976).

George, W. R. P. The Making of Lloyd George (London: Faber, 1976). Rowland, Peter. Lloyd George (London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1975).

Don M. Cregier

LONERGAN, BERNARD (1904–1984)

Bernard Lonergan was born in Buckingham, Quebec, Canada, in 1904 of anglophone Catholic-convert parents. After studying at Loyola College in Montreal, he entered the Society of Jesus in 1922 at Guelph, Ontario, studying at Heythorp College, the University of London, England, and the Gregorian University, Rome. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1936, earned a doctorate at the Gregorian in 1940, and taught theology at the Collège de L’Immaculée Conception, Montréal (1940–47); Regis College, Toronto (1947–53, 1965–75); the Gregorian University, Rome (1953–65); and was Stillman Professor at Harvard University (1971–72). In 1957 he published his most important book, Insight: A Study of Human Understanding, and in 1972 his Method in Theolog y. He died in 1984. Working from within a form of the neo-Thomistic tradition often described as transcendental Thomism, Lonergan attempted to develop an epistemology that would take seriously the Kantian turn and at the same time afford a place for metaphysical speculation.

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Although first trained according to the philosophic methods of the Spanish Thomist Francisco Suarez, then much in use among the Jesuits, Lonergan was early attentive to the work of the English thinker John Henry Newman, in particular the latter’s epistomological study, A Grammar of Assent (1870), a work focused on the factual and empirical nature of human thinking and the manner by which human persons come to certitude in the use of their “illative sense” and that insisted on the moral and religious dimension of all human knowing. Shortly after his first engagement with Newman at Heythorp College, Lonergan undertook a careful examination of Plato’s theory of ideas through a careful study of John Alexander Stewart’s work on the Greek philosopher; in 1933 he was much influenced by his reading of Augustine’s Cassiacum dialogues and two years later a review of Christopher Dawson. At this time Lonergan took up Aquinas’s Summa Theologica once again, but now in the context of studies he had read by the Dutch Jesuit, Peter Hoenen, and his American confrere, Leo W. Keeler, the former leading him to reflect more closely on Thommasio de Vio Cajetan’s interpretation of Thomas, the latter directing attention to Thomas’s view of judgment in human knowledge. Among all the Thomists he studied, however, the most influential was the Belgian Jesuit, Joseph Maréchal, a figure of primary importance for the development of Transcendental Thomism in general, whose work Le point de départ de la métaphysique: leçons sur le développement historique et theorique du problème de la connaissance (5 vols., 1923–47), a work which attempted to overcome the seeming divisions between Thomas and Kant.

Archives

Heythorp College, London.

Pontifical Gregorian University, Rome.

Lonergan Research Institute, Regis College, Toronto, Ontario.

Lonergan Institute, Boston College, Boston, Mass.

Printed Sources

The fullest bibliography of primary works is available in the ongoing work of Terry J. Tekippe (http://ARC.TZO.COM/PADRE/pri.htm). For a detailed secondary bibliography see the regular updates in the Lonergan Studies Newsletter and the electronic version (http://www.lonergan.on.ca/bib/LSN_Bib_1980_to_2000.pdf ).

Crowe, Frederick E. Lonergan (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1992).

Liddy, Richard. The Transforming Light: Intellectual Conversion in the Early Lonergan (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1993).

Lonergan, Bernard J. F. The Collected Works of Bernard Lonergan, Frederick Crowe and Robert M. Doran (eds.), 25 vols. (Toronto: Published by University of Toronto Press for Lonergan Research Institute of Regis College, 1988– ).

Meynell, Hugo Anthony. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Bernard Lonergan (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991).

———. The Theolog y of Bernard Lonergan (Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1986).

Stebbins, J. Michael. The Divine Initiative: Grace, World-Order, and Human Freedom in the Early Writings of Bernard Lonergan (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995).

Tracy, David. The Achievement of Bernard Lonergan (New York: Herder and Herder, 1970). Tyrrell, Bernard. Bernard Lonergan’s Philosophy of God (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of

Notre Dame Press, 1974).

Peter C. Erb

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LUCE, HENRY ROBINSON (1898–1967)

Henry Luce was born in Tengchow, China, the son of Presbyterian missionaries. At 10, he was sent to a British boarding school at Chefoo on the China coast. Luce entered the Hotchkiss School in Lakeville, Connecticut, at 15. He graduated from Yale and then studied history at Oxford University. Creator of Time, Life, and Fortune magazines, Luce at his peak had a weekly audience of more than 40 million people and arguably influenced his era more than any other publisher. Luce’s news magazines were innovative in that they aimed to sift through the facts for their readers by summarizing and explaining events and trends in politics, business, arts, and sciences. Luce’s journalistic formula spread to competing news services in radio and television and spawned a transformation in American news media from information to synthesis. Luce is controversial because he believed objective reporting is impossible and encouraged his writers and editors to express his own views in their articles. Time often reflected his personal leanings, which were Republican, Christian, staunchly anticommunist, and in favor of U.S. intervention in global politics.

At an early age Luce consumed books in the family’s substantial library and read the many American periodicals to which the Luces subscribed (Baughman 1987, 11). Having been exposed to Sunday sermons of the mission elders, he excelled at a family parlor game based on the Biblical scriptures (Kobler 1968, 25) and one Christmas young Luce received at his request “an American Revised Standard Bible, sets of Shakespeare and the Victorian novelists” (Kobler 1968, 26). He was a devoted reader of the boy’s magazine St. Nicholas, to which he submitted a letter-to- the-editor at age 10. Luce at 14 was criticizing James Bryce’s American Commonwealth for being out-of-date and recommending periodicals to his father (Luce to parents, January 26, 1913, McCormick Papers; Baughman 1987, 14). While at Hotchkiss, Luce wrote a paper in which he praised Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography. “The ardent way in which he strove was the secret to his own personal and moral uplift,” wrote Luce (school theme attached to letter to parents, November 4, 1913, Luce Family Correspondence; Baughman 1987, 14). Luce would refer to and quote Franklin throughout his publishing career. In a speech at the Franklin Award dinner in New York on January 18, 1954, he said, “When I was first introduced to [Franklin] at school by a very dull teacher, I was appalled by the narrow and thrifty maxims of Poor Richard. Later I came to know the brilliant, versatile 18th-century mind, questing, restless and yet serene, the master of all trades—printer, editor, publisher . . . and—after his own relaxed fashion, Christian.” Longtime Luce writer and editor John Jessup described his boss as “all his life a steady reader in many fields, especially popular fiction, theology, history and political philosophy” (Luce 1969, 6). A well-worn Bible was always upon Luce’s bedside table, yet his favorite hero of legend was Prometheus, a man who defied the gods. Luce’s attempts to reconcile Christian humility with personal ambition and Christian mysticism with scientific reason are recurrent themes in his speeches and writings. He was interested in theological efforts to modernize the idea of God and was attracted to the quasiand liberal Christian philosophies of William Ernest Hocking, Paul Tillich, Arnold Toynbee, Gerald Heard, and John Courtney Murray. He introduced Toynbee’s A Study of History to a mass audience in Life Magazine in 1948. Teilhard de Chardin came closest to a scientific model of Christian hope for Luce. Luce often quoted Cardinal Manning’s assertion that politics is a branch of

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