Dictionary of Literary Influences

Holland, Agnieszka

active during the Czech Spring Uprising and was subsequently imprisoned for several weeks. On her return to Poland in 1971 she gained prominence as a directorial assistant to Krzysztof Zanussi for the film Illuminations (1973). Concurrent with her directing and screenwriting apprenticeship in the 1970s, Holland also forged something of an acting career for herself, playing minor roles in film and television productions. In 1976 she codirected with Pawel⁄ Ke˛dzierski Out Takes, playing at the same time the acting part of a director. It was Holland’s collaboration with Andrzej Wajda on the screenplay to his celebrated film Man of Marble (1976) that first brought her to the attention of critics outside of Poland. It was not until 1978, however, that Holland made her own impact on Polish cinema by making her independent directing debut with the film Provincial Actors, achieving instant international acclaim and marking the beginning of a cinematic odyssey through numerous themes and film genres. The following films Fever (1980) and A Lonely Woman (1981) enjoyed equal critical success, thus cementing Holland’s position at the heart of European cinema. It was while promoting this film in Sweden that martial law was declared in Poland, and due to her political activities with the Solidarity movement, Holland was forced to flee to France. For the next few years Holland maintained herself in France by translating and producing screenplays for film and television. Her rebirth as a director came in 1985 with the German film Angry Harvest, which told the story of a Polish Catholic farmer hiding a Jewish girl during the Nazi occupation. Here Holland’s efforts were awarded with an Oscar nomination in the best foreign film category. Agnieszka Holland chose France as the place for her 1988 production, To Kill a Priest, featuring an American and English ensemble of actors, which told the story of the Polish priest, Jerzy Popiel⁄ uszko, who had become a spiritual leader for the Solidarity movement in the early 1980s but was murdered by a unit of Poland’s secret police. This film was followed in 1991 by Europa, Europa, which recounted the survival of a Jewish teen in Nazi Germany as he is forced to hide within the ranks of the Hitler Youth. Europa, Europa enjoyed considerable commercial success in America and was nominated for an Oscar in the best original screenplay category. Her following film Olivier, Olivier (1992) is a comparable film to Krzysztof Kies´lowski’s The Double Life of Veronique— notably, Holland penned the screenplay to Kies´lowski’s Three Colours—Blue (1993). The film was sumptuously shot and set in the French countryside, telling the troubling story of a boy’s disappearance and the disintegration of his family following the incident. The mystery deepens as the child resurfaces many years later, and the question of his lost years divides both his parents and his suspicious sister.

Following Olivier, Olivier, Holland was offered to direct the Hollywood production of The Secret Garden (1993), based on the Frances Hodgson Burnett tale. Holland’s take on the classic story pleased both critics and audiences alike. Her next film, the independently made Total Eclipse (1995), relating the tempestuous relationship of Arthur Rimbaud and Paul Verlaine, failed to find a wide audience. However, Holland’s 1997 film Washington Square, based on the novel by Henry James, received wide critical praise. In 1999 Holland made The Third Miracle, featuring Ed Harris (who also starred in the film To Kill a Priest) as a priest who must determine the candidacy of a dead woman for sainthood and the authenticity of the miracles which seemed to be taking place in the inner-city neighborhood where she had lived. Agnieszka Holland’s latest movies have treated difficult and gritty subjects. Shot in the Heart (2001), filmed for HBO, recounts the family tragedy of Gary

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Gilmore, whose execution by firing squad in the late 1970s—instigated at his own request—acted as a catalyst for the death penalty to be reintroduced in many American states. Julia Walking Home (2001), on the other hand, is the story of a woman who, having been betrayed by her husband, takes her terminally ill son to Poland to be treated by a Russian faith healer.

Throughout her career Agnieszka Holland has maintained an independent path, and each film stands as unique unto itself. Holland’s Polish-Jewish heritage is explored often, and it is impossible to separate her own life-history from many of her films. In addition, the extreme circumstances of Holland’s life resulted in a keen insight into the lot of individual man swept up by the tide of history. An avid reader, Holland’s films are often filled with literary motifs, and she is not averse to infusing her films with traces of the supernatural.

Printed Sources

Doportowa, Mariola Jankun. Gorzkie Kino Agnieszki Holland (The Bitter Cinema of Agnieszka Holland) (Warsaw: Sl⁄ owo/Obraz Terytoria, 2001).

Kornatowska, Maria. Magia I pieniadze (Magic and Money) (Cracow: Znak, 2002).

Barry Keane

HONECKER, ERICH (1912–1994)

Erich Honecker was born the fourth of six children on August 25, 1912 in Neunkirchen, Saar, near the German–French border and attended the local primary school. Honecker’s father, Wilhelm, was a coal miner and a member of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). Nominally Protestant, Honecker neither attended nor received religious instruction and officially left the church at age 14. Young Erich had an early exposure to politics through his father, a militant member of the coal-miner’s union and after 1919 the Communist Party (KPD). Honecker was active in communist youth groups after age 10 and in 1929 devoted himself to fulltime political work, initially as head of propaganda and agitation for the local communist youth league. He joined the KPD in 1929, and during 1930–31 attended the Lenin School in Moscow. After 1933 Honecker performed underground work for the KPD; he was arrested in 1935, imprisoned, and only released in April 1945. While in prison Honecker cemented numerous political relationships. In 1945 Honecker settled in the Soviet sector of Berlin; from 1945 to 1955 he performed Party work with the Free German Youth, rising to lead this organization. In 1949 he became a member of the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party, a Stalinist-style melding of SPD and KPD. Honecker’s rapid rise in the party structure was primarily due to a strong ideological and political allegiance to the German Democratic Republic (GDR) state and party leader Walter Ulbricht. In 1957 Honecker became head of GDR security forces; in this role he carried through plans in August 1961 to construct the Berlin Wall. Opposed to liberalization during the 1960s, in 1971 Honecker replaced Ulbricht when the latter lost the support of the Soviet Union over the question of relations with West Germany. From 1971 to 1989 Honecker held the most important political offices in East Germany, controlling party, state, and armed forces. The emergence of Gorbachev in the Soviet Union in the mid-1980s brought new pressures for economic and political reform, which Honecker rejected. Demonstrations throughout the GDR led to his ouster

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in October 1989. Charged by authorities with corruption and misuse of power, Honecker fled in March 1991 to Moscow, but in July 1992 was turned over to a German court. After a brief time in prison he was released and went into exile in Chile, where he died on May 29, 1994.

The union and political activities of his father exposed Honecker early to radical influences. As a youth he sat at meetings where the messages of Karl Liebknecht and Karl Marx were preached. During his late teenage years he read Marx, but also Zinoviev and Bukharin. He was also supportive of Josef Stalin’s policies; the Soviet leader’s Foundations of Leninism was a key influence. The impact on young Honecker of the year in Moscow (1930–31) cannot be overestimated; his schooling there cemented his belief that class conflict was the key to understanding history and his belief in the need to work tirelessly for revolution. While at the Lenin School, he read a wide range of standard Marxist texts, notably Marx, Friedrich Engels, V. I. Lenin, and Stalin, and specifically Bukharin’s ABC of Communism. Outside of political tracts he read little during his life; when he did, he chose socialistrealist novels by lesser-known Soviet and East German authors. These presented working-class heroes and revolutionary situations, conforming to Honecker’s view of the world and how it should be.

Archives

Bundesarchiv Potsdam. Records of GDR Council of State.

Central Archive of the Former GDR Ministry of State Security, Berlin. Records of GDR Council of Ministers, other state bodies.

Printed Sources

Herzberg, Andert. Der Sturz: Honecker im Kreuzverhör (Berlin: Aufbau Verlag, 1991). Insightful interview conducted after fall from power.

Honecker, Erich. From My Life (Aus meinem Leben) (New York: Pergamon, 1981). Autobiography.

Honecker, Erich. Zu dramatischen Ereignissen (Hamburg: Runge, 1992). Honecker’s version of 1989.

Lippmann, Heinz. Honecker and the New Politics of Europe (New York: Macmillan, 1972). Solid on formative years.

Thomas Saylor

HOOVER, HERBERT C. (1874–1964)

Herbert Hoover was born in West Branch, Iowa. Raised in a Quaker family, he later recalled that his early reading consisted of the Bible, the encyclopedia, and temperance tracts. Orphaned at age nine, he moved to Oregon where for three years he attended Friends Pacific Academy, founded by his uncle. As an adolescent Hoover worked in a land development company. A local school teacher, Miss Jennie Gray, introduced him to literature beginning with Ivanhoe and David Copperfield and progressing to William Thackeray, Washington Irving, and biographies of George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and Ulysses Grant. At night school, he obtained a rudimentary education in business subjects.

As the youngest member of Stanford University’s pioneer class, Hoover focused on geology and engineering, placing priority on fieldwork. Over the next two decades, he made a fortune as a mining engineer and financier. He assisted his wife,

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Lou Henry Hoover, in translating a sixteenth-century Latin mining and metallurgical text, De Re Metallica (1556) by “Georgius Agricola” (Georg Bauer), which they privately published in 1912. Claremont College houses their extensive library of mining and engineering books. Hoover frequently subsidized book acquisitions for members of the Stanford faculty. He gave the university a collection of more than 500 volumes about China. And Mrs. Hoover collected manuscripts related to the Boxer Rebellion, which occurred during their residency in Tientsin.

By 1914, Hoover was a millionaire and considered entering public life. Human suffering in occupied nations of Europe in World War I drew him into extensive relief activities that involved much travelling. Long sea voyages offered unprecedented opportunities to remedy gaps in his reading, particularly historical works. Inspired by Andrew D. White’s example of acquiring documents about the French Revolution, Hoover recognized a unique opportunity to collect “fugitive publications” of the day. Thus began the vast archival collections of the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace on the campus of Stanford University.

America’s declaration of war in 1917 brought Hoover home to head the U.S. Food Administration. After postwar relief work, he served as secretary of commerce from 1921 to 1928 under Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. Articulating a major defining principle of that era, Hoover described his concept of United States citizenship in American Individualism (1922). The small book is more the product of his own experiences, especially as an American living abroad, than of any particular literary influence.

Elected president of the United States in 1928, Hoover served one term, blighted by the onset of the Great Depression. Returning to private life in 1933, he engaged in Republican Party politics, opposed American entry into World War II, and tried unsuccessfully to provide relief to European democracies after the outbreak of war in 1939. With the death of Franklin Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman recalled Hoover to service, sending him on a world tour to combat famine in 1946 and on a follow-up visit to Germany and Austria in 1947. Truman and his successor, Dwight D. Eisenhower, recruited Hoover to head two commissions on reorganization of the executive branch of government.

Hoover published prolifically after his presidency. The Challenge to Liberty (1934) launched his critique of the New Deal. It was followed by eight volumes of Addresses upon the American Road, speeches and press statements covering 1933 to 1960. Three volumes of Memoirs (1951–52) told his story in his own way. Another four of An American Epic (1959–64) provided an edited documentary record of food relief. At the time of his death, Hoover was preparing Freedom Betrayed, his still unpublished examination of U.S. foreign policy after his presidency.

Archives

Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, Iowa. Hoover’s personal and official manuscripts. Many manuscript collections of associates. Museum, including personal and contextual artifacts.

Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Stanford, California. Archives of relief organizations. Manuscript collections of associates.

Printed Sources

Best, Gary Dean. Herbert Hoover: The Postpresidential Years (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1983).

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Burner, David. Herbert Hoover: A Public Life (New York: Knopf, 1979).

Nash, George H. The Life of Herbert Hoover. Vol. I: The Engineer, 1874–1914. Vol. 2: The Humanitarian, 1914–1917. Vol. 3: Master of Emergencies, 1917–1918 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1981, 1988, 1996).

Nash, Lee (ed.). Understanding Herbert Hoover: Ten Perspectives (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1987).

Smith, Richard Norton. An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984).

Wilson, Joan Hoff. Herbert Hoover: Forgotten Progressive (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1975).

Susan Eastbrook Kennedy

HUSÁK, GUSTÁV (1913–1991)

Gustáv Husák was born in Dubrávka, Slovakia. He was a political leader for the Slovaks in the beginning of his career as a statesman and later became Communist Party secretary of Czechoslovakia in 1969, after the Soviet invasion of Prague. Like most Slovaks, he had been raised with the Catholic religion, but he rejected all religion when he turned to the Communist Party.

Husák studied law at Komenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia. In 1933, as a member of the Communist Party, he assisted in leading the Slovak uprising against the Nazis. In 1951, during the Communist Party purges and puppet trials, Husák was arrested and jailed for nine years, gaining release in 1960. In 1963 he received permission to rejoin the Party and became a very outspoken critic of Antonín Novotny´, whose policies and politics were viewed as anti-Slovak by Husák and Slovak Nationalists. Novotny´ resigned in 1968, and Husák became the deputy premier of Czechoslovakia and developed the reforms in 1968 before the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. After the invasion, Husák became very pro-Soviet and assisted the government in creating one of the most tightly controlled Communist regimes in Europe. Husák created a large network of vicious goverment informers who spied upon the people, while the economy and government turned itself more deeply into the Soviet-style form of Communism. In 1975, Husák became president of Czechoslovakia but resigned in 1989 with the collapse of the Berlin Wall and Communist rule. He was replaced by Václav Havel as president.

Husák was a prolific Communist writer and wrote many speeches that were published as pamphlets in both Czech and Slovak languages. He was greatly influenced as a Communist writer by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who cowrote The Communist Manifesto (1848). Marx’s Das Kapital (1867–95), as well as Friedrich Engels’s work

The Condition of the Working Class in England (1844), which critiques the squalor and misery created in Manchester, England, by greedy capitalist factory owners, served as models for Husák’s writing and thinking. Husák also read the works of Vladimir Illych Lenin (1870–1924) such as What Is to Be Done (1901–02), Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), and Lessons of the Moscow Uprising (1906), as well as the works by Czech writer Julius Fucˇík, who wrote Bozˇena Neˇmcová bojujíci (1939;

Bozˇena Neˇmcová is Fighting) and V zemi, kde zítra jizˇ znamená vcˇera (1932; In the Country Where Tomorrow No Longer Means Yesterday). These works reflected not only a defiance against the Nazis’ rise to power but also brought forth a creative method of socialist realism. Palmiro Togliatti’s Jalta Memorandum (1964), which was written for the Italian Communist Party, was also a basis for Husák’s writing.

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Archives

Národní knihovna v Praze (National Library in Prague at the Klemintinum in Prague, Czech Republic): Husák’s speeches and writings, material on Communist Party in Czechoslovakia. Newspapers, magazines, and photos.

Archív hlavního meˇsta Prahy (Prague City Archives, Prague 4-Chodov, Prague, Czech Republic): Manuscripts, documents on the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia. Newspapers, magazines, and photos.

Státní ústrˇední archív (State Central Archive in Prague, Czech Republic): Photos, documents, manuscripts.

Printed Sources

Kennedy, Michael D. The End to Soviet-Type Society and the Future of Post-Communism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991).

Motková, Eva Victoria. “Václav Havel and Lech Walesa: Networks for Peaceful Transformation, Truth and Freedom” (Thesis). Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, Fla., 2001.

An Outline of the History of the CPCz (Communist Party of Czechoslovakia) (Prague: Orbis, 1985).

Sviták, Jan. The Unbearable Burden of History: The Sovietization of Czechoslovakia. Vol. 2. Prague Spring Revisited (Praha: Akademia, 1990).

Cynthia A. Klima

HUXLEY, ALDOUS (1894–1963)

Aldous Huxley was born at Laleham, Godalming in Surrey. He entered Eton in 1908, had to withdraw in 1911 due to illness, but was still able to matriculate to Balliol College, Oxford in 1913. He left Oxford with a first class degree in 1916 and took up a teaching position at Eton. However, literature emerged as a more important vocation as he began to publish a number of significant novels during the 1920s. Crome Yellow (1921), Mortal Coils (1922), and Antic Hay (1923) are all indicative of Huxley’s growth as a novelist. However, it was Point Counter Point (1928), which caught the turbulence of postwar Europe, and Brave New World (1932), which presaged a future in which science, technology, and mass-production would form a bland, lifeless society, that established his reputation as a critical twentiethcentury voice. In 1938 Huxley moved to California, where he would live for the last 25 years of life; while he continued to produce a range of literary works (plays, novels, and film scripts), this period of his life has also been remembered for his exploration of both Eastern religions and experimental drug use.

While Huxley was remembered at Oxford as someone who had “read everything,” his intellectual formation was largely the product of pedigree. To begin with, he was at once the great grandson of Dr. Thomas Arnold of Rugby, the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the grand nephew of Matthew Arnold, the nephew of the novelist Mrs. Humphry Ward, and the brother of Julian Huxley, who would ultimately become a successful scientist and writer. In addition, as a teacher and scholar, his father made a significant contribution in his own right, while his mother founded a school. Given this background, Aldous Huxley’s development was shaped as much by family habit as it might have been by exposure to a given set of ideas.

Huxley did, nevertheless, bear the stamp of a generation that understood itself to be significantly different than its predecessors, a sentiment which would later find

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expression as the “revolt against Victorianism.” For the young Huxley it meant an open stance toward the future shape of society and, on a more immediate level, a rethinking of personal and sexual boundaries; both of these orientations would later mean that critics would identify Huxley with literary modernism.

Huxley’s career, then, depended upon what he learned from key personal relationships. Literary scholars have discerned that Huxley’s development was affected by the friendship which he developed with D. H. Lawrence (whose letters he would publish), who he claimed was a “great man.” Huxley also benefited from the patronage of Lady Ottoline Morrell, who introduced him to the household society of Garsington (about six miles from Oxford). At Garsington Huxley would begin to form friendships with Leonard and Virginia Woolf, Bertrand Russell (“lucid and intellectual”), John Maynard Keynes (“always fascinating”), Clive Bell (“extremely stimulating”), and Roger Fry (“from whom I learned a great deal”). These relationships were personal before they were literary, but they amounted to a significant intellectual resource for the young Huxley to draw from.

Given these wide influences, it is not surprising that Huxley never developed a series of central ideas or core of thought. Instead, he maintained an unusual curiosity and breadth of interest in intellectual questions. These concerns ultimately involved what he perceived to be the struggle for human freedom. As such, he tended to remain hostile to conservatism and traditional Christianity while embracing social experimentation and divergent forms of spiritual life.

After his relocation to California, Huxley’s outlook and interests would again be decisively shaped by personal encounters. Both Jiddu Krishnamurti and Swami Prabhavananda helped him become even more sensitive to Hinduism. These relationships bore fruit in a number of ways: in the emphasis on Eastern mysticism which helps to define Huxley’s later writings and in his attempts to help Gerald Heard in the establishment of a religious community called Trabuco College.

Archives

Aldous Huxley Collection, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, UCLA, Los Angeles,

California.

Printed Sources

Bedford, Sybille. Aldous Huxley. A Biography, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1973–74). Dunaway, David King. Aldous Huxley Recollected: An Oral History (New York: Caroll and

Graf, 1995).

Huxley, Aldous. The Letters of Aldous Huxley, Grover Smith (ed.), (New York: Harper and Row, 1969).

Huxley, Sir Julian. Memories, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1970).

Huxley, Laura Archera. This Timeless Moment: A Personal View of Aldous Huxley (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1968).

Stephen L. Keck

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I

IONESCO, EUGÈNE (ROMANIAN SPELLING: IONESCU, EUGEN) (1909–1994)

Eugène Ionesco was born in Slatina, a small town in western Romania, to a Romanian father and a French mother of Jewish origin. He spent the years 1913–22 in France before returning to Romania, where he attended high schools in Bucharest and Craiova and obtained a degree in French language and literature from Bucharest University. In the 1930s, he gained a reputation as the enfant terrible of Romanian literary journalism and criticism—winning a prize for his iconoclastic collection of essays Nu (No) in 1934—while earning a living as a French teacher. In 1938 he left for Paris, taking up a French government scholarship to do a thesis on Baudelaire’s poetry; henceforth, apart from a brief spell between 1940 and 1942, he lived in France for the rest of his life. His groundbreaking play La cantatrice chauve was first performed in Paris in 1950, and over the next two decades he established himself in France, Britain, and America as one of the leading lights of the post–World War II theatrical avant-garde with works such as La leçon (1954), Rhinocéros (1960), and Le roi se meurt (1962). In his later life Ionesco also took up painting. He died in 1994.

Besides his early literary criticism, Ionesco gave a large number of interviews and published several volumes of journals, in which a complex but relatively consistent pattern of literary influence can be established. He was an obsessive reader with an exceptionally acute critical faculty; he repeatedly attacked both consecrated writers and the concept of the literary canon, while at the same time engaging in an intense search for meaning in life and literature: the title of his 1987 volume, La quête intermittente, describes this process well. In Nu and other Romanian criticism, Ionesco was ruthless about the provincial, imitative aspect of Romanian literature. He made exceptions for the rationalist critic Titu Maiorescu, the romantic poet Mihai Eminescu, and the satirical dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale, for whom he retained a lifelong affection (Ionesco 1962, 117–21; Ionesco 1987, 76) and whose dramatic

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technique clearly influenced his own (Hamdan 1993, 138–74). He also admired Romanian surrealists including Tristan Tzara, and claimed to have arrived at the techniques of the theater of the absurd independently of Samuel Beckett. In the early 1930s a deprecatory aside about Romanians in Aldous Huxley’s novel Point Counter Point both offended him and made him aware of the impossibility of achieving European distinction while writing in a minor cultural language (Ionesco 1934, 57). In 1935 he wrote a hilarious travestied biography of Victor Hugo, but later expressed admiration for Hugo’s attempts at theatrical innovation.

Early critics of his theater related his work to the traditions of French modernism and the surrealist avant-garde: he admitted that of Gustave Flaubert, Alfred Jarry, and the poets Paul Claudel and Jammes and Maurice Maeterlinck (interview in Hayman 1972, 1–17), although his immediate inspiration for La cantatrice chauve was not a literary text but a series of dialogues in an English-teaching manual (Englezes¸te fa˘ra profesor, 1948 repr. with French translation in Hamdan 1993, 175–201). Philosophically, he found Arthur Schopenhauer, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Emile Durkheim and Carl Jung more interesting than Friedrich Nietzsche (“indigestible”), Søren Kierkegaard (whom “I never managed to understand very well”; Ionesco 1987, 101ff.), or Sigmund Freud. The influence of religious thought on Ionesco’s work is not to be ignored. He took great interest in the “personalist” Christian writer Emmanuel Mounier, especially during the war when French and Romanian intellectual life seemed to him to have lost all moral direction (Hayman 1972, 3; Ionesco 1968, 166), while the writings of St. John of the Cross remained important to him in what he saw as a desacralized world in which “reason, in its mediocrity, prevents us from having faith” (Ionesco 1987, 95). He explicitly rejected, however, the false promises of materialist prophecy (Marx), the possibility of art to convey messages (Bertolt Brecht, Jean-Paul Sartre), or the mystical eschatology of the extreme right.

Archives

Ionesco’s correspondence remains mostly in private hands; however, he gave many interviews during his lifetime and published numerous volumes of journals which shed light on the question of literary influence (see Printed Sources). The manuscripts of some of his plays have been deposited at the Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris.

Printed Sources

Hamdan, Alexandra. Ionescu avant Ionesco. Portrait de l’artiste en jeune homme (Berne: Peter Lang, 1993).

Hayman, Ronald. Eugene Ionesco (London: Heinemann, 1972).

Heitmann, Klaus. “Ein religiöser Denker unserer Tage: Eugene Ionesco.” In Alfonso de Toro (ed.), Texte, Kontexte, Strukturen. Beiträge zur französischen, spanischen und hispanoamerikanischen Literatur, Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Karl Alfred Blüher (Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1987), 113–36.

Ionesco, Eugène. Antidotes. (Paris: Gallimard, 1977).

———.Conversations with Eugene Ionesco, Claude Bonnefoy (ed.), Jan Dawson (trans.), (London: Faber and Faber, 1970).

———.Découvertes (Genève: A. Skira, 1969).

———.Journal en miettes (Paris: Mercure de France, 1967).

———.Notes et contre notes (Paris: Gallimard, 1962).

———.Nu (Bucures¸ti: Vremea, 1934).

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———.Présent passé, passé présent (Paris: Mercure de France, 1968).

———.Ruptures de silence: rencontres avec André Coutin (Paris: Mercure de France, 1995).

———.La quête intermittente (Paris: Gallimard, 1987).

Ionescu, Gelu. Les débuts littéraires roumains d’Eugène Ionesco (1926–1940), Mirella NedelcoPatureau (trans.), (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1989).

Petreu, Marta. Ionescu în t¸ara tata˘lui (Cluj-Napoca: Apostrof, 2001).

Alexander Drace-Francis

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