Dictionary of Literary Influences

Johnson, Lyndon Baines

Archives

Archiwum Kurii Metropolitalnej, Krakow, Poland: manuscripts of published literary works, miscellaneous documents.

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana: Archivio Segreto Vaticano, Città del Vaticano, Vatican City State: records of John Paul II’s pontificate.

Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski: Biblioteka Uniwersytecka KUL and Instytut Jana Pawl⁄ a II, Lublin, Poland: miscellaneous manuscripts, documents, and works.

Letters of Karol Wojtyl⁄ a to Mieczysl⁄ aw Kotlarczyk (1939/40): private collection of Aniela Pakosiewicz (cf. Ciechowicz, Jan. Dom opowies´ci. Ze studiów nad Teatrem Rapsodycznym Mieczysl⁄ awa Kotlarczyka [Gdan´sk: Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Gdan´skiego, 1992], 119).

Printed Sources

Buttiglione, Rocco. Karol Wojtyla: The Thought of the Man Who Became Pope John Paul II,

Paolo Guietti and Francesca Murphy (trans.), (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1997).

´

Ciechowicz, Jan. “Swiatopogla˛ d teatralny Karola Wojtyl⁄ y,” In Jan Ciechowicz, Dom opowies´ci. Ze studiów nad Teatrem Rapsodycznym Mieczysl⁄ awa Kotlarczyka (Gdan´sk: Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Gdan´skiego, 1992), 114–28.

Crosby, John F., and Geoffrey Gneuhs. The Legacy of Pope John Paul II: His Contribution to Catholic Thought (New York: Crossroad Pub., 2000).

Dybciak, Krzysztof. “Jan Pawel⁄ II.” In Wincenty Granat and Feliks Grylewicz (eds.), Encyklopedia katolicka, 7 vols. (Lublin: Tow. Nauk. Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, 1973–97).

———. Karol Wojtyl⁄ a a literatura (Tarnów: Biblos, 1991).

Maciejewski, Jarosl⁄ aw. “Karol Wojtyl⁄ a i Jan Pawel⁄ II wobec literatury,” W drodze 7, 8 (1983). Malinski, Mieczyslaw. Pope John Paul II: The Life of Karol Wojtyla (New York: Crossroad,

1981).

Weigel, George. Witness to Hope: The Biography of Pope John Paul II (New York: Cliff Street Books, 1999).

Williams, George Huntston. The Mind of John Paul II: Origins of His Thought and Action

(New York: Seabury Press, 1981).

Zieba, Maciej. The Surprising Pope: Understanding the Thought of John Paul II, Karolina Weening (trans.), (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2000).

Andrzej Karcz

JOHNSON, LYNDON BAINES (1908–1973)

“LBJ” was one of the most powerful political figures in twentieth-century America. Born in the barren central hill country of Texas, the hint of poverty forever influenced Johnson’s political beliefs. Johnson entered Southwest Texas State Teacher’s College in 1927 before briefly teaching at a poor, Hispanic school in rural Texas. In college, Johnson was active on the debate team and in campus politics and also edited the school newspaper. But it was not reading and studying that exemplified LBJ’s college days; it was extracurricular activities and his burgeoning political ambition.

In 1934, at the tender age of 28, Johnson was elected to Congress. The everambitious Texan immediately set his sights on higher offices. Running for the U.S. Senate, Johnson was narrowly defeated in his initial try but was elected to that distinguished body in 1948. During the interim years, he married, started a family, and crafted a series of investments that made him prosperous for the remainder of his life. In 1954, he was named senate majority leader—becoming the most power-

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ful member of the Senate. LBJ tried for the White House in 1960, but he was no match for the charismatic John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Johnson was, however, selected as Kennedy’s vice-presidential running mate and helped the ticket gain a razor-slim victory in the November election. On November 22, 1963, Johnson became president when Kennedy was killed by an assassin in a Dallas, Texas, motorcade.

Johnson’s presidency (1963–69) was marked by both tremendous legislative gains and devastating political disappointments. During his term, he created the Great Society—an effort to end poverty in the United States. He established Medicare, poured money into education and cities, and advanced civil rights legislation. His Great Society and War on Poverty helped him win a landslide victory in the 1964 election. But foreign policy proved to be Johnson’s downfall. A commitment of American troops in Vietnam was beginning to intensify by 1965, and Johnson fell into the quagmire. By 1968, his administration had committed over 500,000 troops to the Vietnam War. With mounting American casualties and no clear goals, Johnson began losing political support. As he committed money, troops, and his credibility to the unwinnable war, his political fortunes sagged. Once considered a sure bet to win reelection in 1968, he was challenged within his own party and finally decided not to run. Johnson retired to his Texas ranch where he wrote his memoirs. Suffering from long-term heart ailments, LBJ suffered a massive heart attack and died on January 22, 1973.

Lyndon Johnson was never an avid reader. One biographer estimated that Johnson read almost no books after college. The literary influences that did affect Johnson concerned his life’s passion: politics. It was political ambition that drove his intellectual development. Johnson himself said that he wanted to know people—he was never interested in theories or philosophical principles. One of Johnson’s close friends explained that LBJ did study and learn, not from books, but from people.

As a youth, his mother couldn’t get him to read fiction—if a story was made up, young Lyndon would not read it. Johnson became, however, an avid reader of newspapers and other political publications. Throughout his legislative career and into his presidency, Johnson devoured three to four newspapers per day, including the New York Times and the Washington Post. He was also an avid reader of The Congressional Record, a publication that examines legislative bills and governmental activities. And during his presidency, Johnson was known to have viewed the three major television news programs simultaneously in order to see how each network interpreted his administration and its policies.

No one ever questioned Johnson’s intelligence. Yet, he himself worried about his cultural and literary knowledge—especially around the Kennedys. Though he was not overly impressed with the university intellectuals that permeated Washington in the 1960s, Johnson dreaded having to attend state dinners for writers, artists, and classical musicians. Rarely could he talk to them and later said that those formal occasions reminded him of musty museums or lecture halls.

Lyndon Baines Johnson was an intellectual anomaly—politically well read and intelligent, but culturally and philosophically uninterested. It was an irony of his life that he reached the presidency at a time when intellectual knowledge was on the ascendancy. Had he become president a decade or two earlier, his “literary” interests—people and politics—would have been more appreciated. But helped by the Kennedy administration, the youth movement, and the counterculture, John-

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son found himself in an era in which he didn’t seem to belong—where his particular skills were misunderstood. Historically he is remembered for his Great Society, War on Poverty, and Vietnam policies. Johnson is also remembered by many for being crude and uncultured. In an era and decade of intellectual, literary, and cultural growth, Johnson the president and master politician was the antithesis. In comparison, Johnson was simply a back-slapping politician from another era who read little and had no higher philosophy than to win votes. His literary and intellectual shortfalls, coupled with the Vietnam debacle, made Johnson a semitragic figure during the turbulent 1960s.

Archives

Lyndon B. Johnson Library, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. This comprehensive collection holds Johnson’s papers, family correspondence, his House of Representatives and Senate papers and correspondence, speeches, letters, numerous oral histories, and papers of several of his cabinet members and aides.

Printed Sources

Caro, Robert. The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power (New York: Knopf, 1982); The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Means of Ascent (New York: Knopf, 1990); The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Master of the Senate (New York: Knopf, 2002). Well-researched works on the life of Johnson. Best in looking at Johnson’s rise in politics and methods he used to gain power.

Dallek, Robert. Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961–1973

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). Well-written biographies which stress politics and Johnson’s fall from grace during the Vietnam debacle.

Johnson, Lyndon B. The Vantage Point: Perspectives of the Presidency, 1963–1969 (New York: Johnson, Holt, Reinhart & Winston, 1971). A biased justification of his own policies.

Kearns, Doris. Lyndon B. Johnson and the American Dream (New York, Signet, 1976). Impressive work by author who had access to Johnson. The history is very good—the psychohistory is even more interesting.

Unger, Irwin, and Deb Unger. LBJ: A Life (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999). Best current one-volume biography of LBJ.

David E. Woodard

JOYCE, JAMES AUGUSTINE (1882–1941)

James Joyce was born in Dublin to a lower-middle-class family. His father, a garrulous bon vivant whose early retirement and heavy drinking led his family to poverty, and his Jesuit education determined the growth of Joyce’s mind. After obtaining a degree from University College Dublin, Joyce intended to study medicine in Paris but abandoned his plans and set out on a literary career instead. Feeling cramped by Dublin provincialism, he eloped in 1904 with Nora Barnacle to the Continent, where his son Giorgio (1905) and his daughter Lucia (1907) were born. He sustained himself with various teaching posts in Pola and Trieste while he finished Dubliners (1914) and wrote the autobiographical Stephen Hero (1944), the early version of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1917). He spent the war in Zurich, while A Portrait brought him some international recognition. Encouraged by Ezra Pound and sponsored by Harriet Shaw Weaver, he later settled in Paris, where Ulysses was published in 1922. This novel about a day in the life of Mr.

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Leopold Bloom was a succès de scandale and banned in the United Kingdom and the United States. As Joyce’s financial security increased, his eyesight deteriorated, and during the 1920s and 1930s he underwent numerous operations for glaucoma. In the early 1930s, moreover, the signs of Lucia’s schizophrenia became increasingly apparent. After 17 years of writing, Finnegans Wake (1939) was published, but the feat was eclipsed by the outbreak of war. He moved back to Zurich, where he died on 13 January 1941of a perforated ulcer and was buried at Flüntern cemetery.

Joyce’s notes, published in the James Joyce Archive, contain the traces of his reading. With the exception of Dubliners, written in a scrupulously realist mode, and Exiles, a play in imitation of Ibsen, Joyce’s influences are summed up by two quota- tions—one early from Stephen Hero, “applied Aquinas,” one late from Finnegans Wake, “the last word of stolentelling”—signifying the intent behind his literary appropriations. Aristotle and Aquinas are the major sources for Joyce’s aesthetic theories as they are found in fictional form in A Portrait of the Artist and its precursor Stephen Hero. Ulysses follows schematically Homer’s Odyssey ( Joyce’s major source for the Homeric parallel is Victor Bérard’s Les Phoeniciens et l’Odysee [1902–3] on the Semitic origins of the Odyssey), while the hyperrealistic underpinnings of the novel come from contemporary newspapers and Thom’s Dublin directory for 1904. His stream-of-consciousness style Joyce said derived from a relatively unknown novel, Les lauriers sont coupées (1887) by Édouard Dujardin (to Freud he revealed a remarkable resistance). For Finnegans Wake hundreds of sources have been identified, as Joyce attempted to put as much “world” into the book as possible, from newspaper excerpts to popular hagiographic writings and histories, from Dublin lore to Buddhism; the major principles behind the Wake’s encyclopedic nature are based on Vico’s cyclical view of history in The New Science (1744), Quinet’s idea of immutability (through Metchnikoff’s La civilisation et les grands fleuves historiques [1889]), Giordano Bruno’s and Nicholas of Cusa’s notion of the “coincidence of contraries,” the Celtic art in the Book of Kells, and the Egyptian Book of the Dead. Other influences in his writing can be traced to the Bible, Dante, Shakespeare, and Flaubert, as well as to appropriations from popular literature and to his love for music, especially Irish ballads, music hall songs, Renaissance music, and Richard Wagner.

Archives

British Museum: Manuscripts, typescripts, page proofs for Finnegans Wake; Harriet Shaw Weaver correspondence.

Poetry/Rare Books Collection, University of Buffalo, N.Y.: Manuscripts, typescripts, page proofs for Ulysses; notebooks for Ulysses and Finnegans Wake; Beach and miscellaneous correspondence; personal library; published works; press cuttings; photographs.

Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, University of Texas, Austin, Texas: Correspondence; page proofs for Ulysses; personal library; published works.

Princeton University Library, Princeton, N.J.: Correspondence; miscellaneous manuscripts and typescripts; published works; Beach papers relating to Shakespeare & Co.

National Library Dublin, Ireland: Léon correspondence; manuscripts.

Printed Sources

Atherton, James. The Books at the Wake: A Study of Literary Allusions in James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake (New York: Viking, 1960). Critical discussion of structural and thematic influences; includes an alphabetic list with page references of allusions.

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Aubert, Jacques. The Aesthetics of James Joyce (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992). Analysis of Joyce’s aesthetic influences in the early works, including a discussion of Joyce’s notes on Aquinas and Aristotle.

Boldereff, Frances M. Hermes to His Son Thoth: Being Joyce’s Use of Giordano Bruno in Finnegans Wake (Woodward, Penn.: Classic Non-Fiction Library, 1968). Line-by-line identifications of Bruno’s philosophy in the Wake; not always reliable.

Bowen, Zack. Musical Allusions in the Works of James Joyce: Early Poetry through Ulysses

(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1974). A reference tool but also a critical study of music in terms of style, structure, and theme.

Connolly, Thomas E. The Personal Library of James Joyce; A Descriptive Bibliography (Buffalo: University of Buffalo, 1955). Describes the items that survived from Joyce’s personal library in Paris.

Ellmann, Richard. The Consciousness of Joyce (London: Faber and Faber, 1977). A concise study of Joyce’s major sources for Ulysses; includes a description of Joyce’s Trieste library.

———. James Joyce, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).

Groden, Michael et al. (eds.). The James Joyce Archive (New York: Garland, 1977–79). A facsimile edition of available notebooks, drafts, typescripts, and page proofs for all of Joyce’s writings.

Kershner, R. B. Joyce, Bakhtin, and Popular Literature: Chronicles of Disorder (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989). An intertextual reading of Joyce’s borrowings from and attitudes toward popular literature; discusses a wide array of possible and actual sources.

Reynolds, Mary T. Joyce and Dante: The Shaping Imagination (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981). Traces Joyce’s Dantean affinities and allusions through the major works.

Seidel, Michael. Epic Geography: James Joyce’s Ulysses (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976). Critical study of Joyce’s use of Homeric myth, focusing on structural parallels, and with particular reference to Odysseus’s travels; includes maps and a discussion of Joyce’s specific borrowings from Bérard.

Tysdahl, Bjorn J. Joyce and Ibsen: A Study in Literary Influence (Oslo: Norwegian Universities Press, 1968). Traces Ibsen’s influence in Joyce from the early works to Finnegans Wake.

Verene, Donald Philip (ed.). Vico and Joyce (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987). Collection of essays by historians and literary critics that trace affinities between Joyce and Vico in terms of structure, language, and myth.

Wim van Mierlo

JUAN CARLOS I DE BOURBON (1938– )

Juan Carlos was born in Rome’s Anglo-American hospital, the third child to Don Juan de Borbón y Battenberg, Count of Barcelona, and Doña María de las Mercerdes de Borbón-Siciles, who had married in the Italian capital in 1935 and settled there two years later, after being forced to leave Cannes by the French Popular Front government. Juan Carlos was grandson to Spain’s last ruling monarch, Alfonso XIII. Following the collapse of the monarchy, the Spanish royal family went into exile in France and later Italy. By the mid-1930s many of those who wished to overthrow the Republic and set up an authoritarian system of government in its place no longer regarded the former constitutional monarch, Alfonso XIII, as a suitable figurehead and began to look to his son, Juan Carlos’s father, for leadership. Juan Carlos entered Spain for the first time on November 9, 1948, after having been schooled in Switzerland, where his grandmother resided from 1948, and in Spain (by agreement between his father and General Francisco Franco). Juan Carlos earned commissions in the army, navy, and air force (1955–59) and

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studied at the University of Madrid (1959–61). In 1962 he married Princess Sophia of Greece, and they have three children. Ostensibly, his presence on Spanish soil would contribute to Franco’s acceptance by Western democracies and would fuel hope for the restoration of the monarchy at the end of Franco’s reign. On settling in Spain, Juan Carlos found himself competing with others, including his own exiled father, for the post of successor to General Franco, until his nomination in 1969 eventually paved the way for his proclamation as king of Spain in 1975 after Franco’s death. Instead of upholding the Franco dictatorship (as had been intended), he decisively presided over Spain’s democratization, helping to defeat a military coup (1981) and assuming the role of a constitutional monarch.

An unknown figure (except for his athletic prowess, his dedication to work, and his determination to keep the army behind him), Juan Carlos took the throne after Francisco Franco’s death under the shadow of his creator. Yet the future monarch exposed himself to a wide variety of books and serials that, in retrospect, suggest the transition from dictatorship to democracy that his reign initiated. He read with interest Calvo Serer’s Las nuevas democracias (The New Democracies, 1964) and Emilio Romero’s Cartas a un Príncipe (Letters to a Prince, 1964), and he justified a post-Franco era that would recognize the diverse political forces in Spain. So, too, the young and impressionable Juan Carlos was a frequent reader of the two periodicals that provided weekly commentaries on current events: Cambio 16 (Change 16 ) and Actualidad Económica (Current Economics) and the newspaper La Vanguardia (The Vanguard ). Such readings led him to preside decisively over Spain’s democratization, helping to defeat a military coup (1981) and assuming the role of a constitutional monarch.

The behavior of Juan Carlos in the critical years following Franco’s death contributed immensely to the compromise, consensus, mutual trust, and legitimacy that were essential for the consolidation of the parliamentary monarchy—the only form of state which could be viewed as legitimate by both opponents and supporters of the authoritarian regime. Due to the absence of suitable precedents, Juan Carlos was constantly forced to break new ground by shaping the institution in his own image—a gradual evolution toward a Western-type democracy without a constitutional break; that is, using the Francoist institutions to reform Francoism. There were the extension of freedoms and civil rights and the reform of “the representative institutions” (i.e., the Cortes); political parties were allowed to hold open meetings and congresses; demonstrations were authorized; freedom of the press was guaranteed. The king of Spain’s current prestige and reputation largely reflect popular recognition of his decisive role during Spain’s transition to democracy and his contribution to “order and stability” during a difficult period in Spain’s history. He has shown that the monarchy is capable of adapting to the changing needs of Spanish society.

Archives

Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores (Madrid). Archivo General: Serie de Archivo Renovado (MAE/R files).

Public Record Office (London). Foreign Office General Correspondence.

Printed Sources

Carr, Raymond, and Juan Pablo Fusi. Spain: Dictatorship to Democracy (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1979).

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Podolny, Joel. “The Role of Juan Carlos I in the Consolidation of the Parliamentary Monarchy.” In Richard Gunther (ed.), Politics, Society, and Democracy. The Case of Spain (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993), 88–112.

Powell, Charles T. Juan Carlos of Spain: Self-Made Monarch (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996).

Elena M. De Costa

JUNG, CARL GUSTAV (1875–1961)

C. G. Jung was born in Kesswil, Switzerland, to a melancholy, disinclined Protestant pastor, Johann Paul Achilles Jung, and his alternately joyful and diabolical wife, Emilie Preiswerk. His formal education began at the village school in Kleinhüningen, near Basel. After age six, his father taught him Latin. From 1886 to 1895 he attended the Basel Gymnasium, then until 1900 studied science and medicine at the University of Basel, receiving his M.D. in 1900, although his doctoral dissertation on the psychopathology of the occult was not complete until 1902. In the 1890s he also studied archeology, paleontology, and philology on his own. He became Eugen Bleuler’s assistant at the Burghölzli psychiatric clinic, Zürich, in 1900, but spent the winter semester of 1902–3 studying in Paris at the Salpetrière under Pierre Janet. From 1905 to 1913 he taught psychiatry at the University of Zürich. He resigned from Burghölzli in 1909 because of conflict with Bleuler. Thereafter he was in private psychiatric practice, writing copiously, traveling widely, and lecturing frequently.

At a very early age, Jung learned to escape from the oppressive loneliness of his miserable family into his own myth-world. He believed that his grandfather, the physician Carl Gustav Jung, was the illegitimate son of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. This fantasy inspired his lifelong enthusiasm for Goethe’s works, especially Faust. Always fascinated by religion, though distrustful of organized religion, Jung as a child knew the Bible, Greek and Germanic mythology, and local superstition and folklore thoroughly, and had a rudimentary knowledge of Hinduism. As a teenager he admired German literature, English literature in German translation, the medieval mysticism of Meister Eckhart, the philosophies of Immanuel Kant, Arthur Schopenhauer, the pre-Socratics and Plato, and the historical novels of Johann Heinrich Daniel Zschokke and Friedrich Gerstäcker, but was disappointed in the scholastic theology of Thomas Aquinas, the dogmatic theology of Alois Emanuel Biedermann, the historicist theology of Albrecht Ritschl, and the philosophies of Aristotle, Wilhelm Traugott Krug, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Many of these books, except the philosophical, he found in his father’s library.

As a university student, Jung read Jakob Burckhardt, Carl Gustav Carus, Eduard von Hartmann, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, and Buddhist texts. His favorite medical professor was Friedrich von Müller. Enthralled by spiritualism and the occult around 1896, he devoured the works of William Crookes, Carl du Prel, Karl August von Eschenmayer, Joseph von Görres, Justinus Kerner, Johann Carl Passavant, Emanuel Swedenborg, and Johann Karl Friedrich Zoellner. His intense love/hate relationship with the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, especially Thus Spake Zarathustra, started in 1898. Jung probed the innermost nuances of Zarathustra’s character and personality but saw mostly the dark, lonely side of Nietzsche through Schopenhauerian eyes.

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The first two decades of the twentieth century were the most fruitful period for Jung’s development of his psychological, religious, and philosophical thought. At Burghölzli, Jung used the ideas of Gustav Aschaffenburg, Francis Galton, G. Stanley Hall, William James, Emil Kraepelin, and Krafft-Ebing. He read cover-to- cover all the volumes of Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie from its inception in 1844. He immersed himself in the psychological works of Janet, Josef Breuer, Alfred Binet, and Théodore Flournoy, the theology of Rudolf Otto, the philosophy of Jakob Friedrich Fries, the arcane works of Gnostics and mystics, and the mythologies of numerous religious and cultural traditions from around the world. He discerned in the alchemical, astrological, and spiritualist writings of Paracelsus foreshadowings of both Goethe’s Faust and Nietzsche’s Zarathustra. But his most profound learning came from Sigmund Freud, with whom he began a long and famous correspondence in 1906 and whom he met in 1907. Freud committed the drug-addicted psychiatrist Otto Gross to Burghölzli in 1908 so that Gross and Jung could psychoanalyze each other. Freud, Jung, and Sandor Ferenczi lectured together in 1909 at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, where they met James and Hall. Initially Freud and Jung were smitten with each other, but by 1913 philosophical and personal differences had torn them apart. The break from Freud plunged Jung into depression.

Archives

Most of Jung’s correspondence, papers, and manuscripts are in the History of Science Collections of the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zürich. Some autobiographical materials, compiled by Aniela Jaffé, are in the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.

Printed Sources

Brockway, Robert W. Young Carl Jung (Wilmette, Ill.: Chiron, 1996).

Donn, Linda. Freud and Jung: Years of Friendship, Years of Loss (New York: Collier Macmillan, 1990).

Homans, Peter. Jung in Context: Modernity and the Making of a Psycholog y (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).

Jung, C. G. Memories, Dreams, Reflections, Aniela Jaffé (ed.), Richard and Clara Winston (trans.), (New York: Pantheon Books, 1963). Jung’s autobiography.

McLynn, Frank. Carl Gustav Jung (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997).

Noll, Richard. The Aryan Christ: The Secret Life of Carl Jung (New York: Random House, 1997).

Smith, Robert C. The Wounded Jung: Effects of Jung’s Relationships on His Life and Work

(Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1996).

Stern, Paul J. C.G. Jung: The Haunted Prophet (New York: Braziller, 1976). Stevens, Anthony. On Jung (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999).

Wehr, Gerhard. Jung: A Biography, David M. Weeks (trans.), (Boston: Shambhala, 1987).

Eric v.d. Luft

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KAFKA, FRANZ (1883–1924)

Franz Kafka was the greatest German-Jewish writer of Prague. He studied literature, earned a law doctorate in 1906, then toiled mornings as a civil servant in workers’ accident insurance until 1922. His heightened sensitivity and incipient tuberculosis broke his health but not his spirit. Kafka’s life saw no formative events, no major encounters, no long Wanderjahre. Although he never knew exile, he seems an isolated figure, triply alienated as German-speaking Jew surrounded by ethnic Czechs, as Jew within the non-Jewish German community, and as atheist in his own immediate Jewish circle. Was Kafka more influential than influenced? Who were his precursors, Luis Borges tantalizingly wondered. Substantially none, he concluded, while acknowledging Kafka’s devotion to Blaise Pascal (whom he read ardently) and Søren Kierkegaard (whose biography he studied and whose work he grew to know in 1917).

Brod says Kafka preferred biographies and autobiographies, fictional or otherwise, in the confessional mode (Dostoyevsky, Goethe, Kierkegaard, Kleist, Strindberg) and especially the lives of inveterate bachelors (Flaubert, Grillparzer). He cited these often with sympathy, as with Kierkegaard’s broken engagement (“his case is very similar to mine”). Gogol also belongs in this category: Kafka read him and saw his Inspector General performed. If Kafka felt akin to all who sacrificed themselves on the altar of literature, he was most directly influenced by Freud, Goethe, Flaubert, and Jewish fables. The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) may have oriented his written nightmares. Kafka acknowledged having “thoughts about” Freud when writing “The Judgment.” His dearest masters after Goethe were Flaubert and Dickens. In Prague in 1912 Goethe and Flaubert were popular. Under the influence of a professor, Kafka had long admired Goethe and chose him as the subject of his final high school presentation. Kafka suggested to Brod that they together read Flaubert in French. He liked to quote Flaubert on those raising a family: “lls sont dans le vrai.” Sentimental Education was a bedside book: he speaks

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