Language functions

The culmination of language learning is not simply in the mastery of the forms of language, but the mastery of forms in order to accomplish the communicative functions of language. Mastery of vocabulary and structures results in nothing if the learner cannot use those forms for the purpose of transmitting and receiving thoughts, ideas, and feelings between speaker and hearer, or writer and reader. While forms are the manifestation of language, functions are the realization of those forms. The pragmatic purpose of language - the use of signs and symbols for Communication - is thus the final and ultimate objective of the second language learner.

Forms of language generally serve specific functions. 'How much does that cost?' is usually a form functioning as a question, and «He bought a car» functions as a statement. But linguistic forms are not always unambiguous in their function. “I can't find my umbrella” uttered by a frustrated adult who is late for work on a rainy day may be a frantic request for all in the household to join in a search. A child who says 'I want some ice cream' is rarely stating a simple fact or observation but requesting ice cream in her own intimate register.

A sign on the street that says 'one way' functions to guide traffic in only one direction. A sign in a church parking lot in a busy downtown area was subtle in form but direct in function: 'We forgive those who trespass against us, but we also tow them'; that sign functioned effectively to prevent unauthorized cars from parking in the lot.

Communication may be regarded as a combination of acts, a series of elements with purpose and intent. Communication is not merely an event, something that happens; it is functional, purposive, and designed to bring about some effect - some change, however subtle or unobservable - on the environment of hearers or speakers. Communication is a series of communicative acts or speech acts, to use John Austin's (1962) term, which are used systematically to accomplish particular purposes. Austin stressed the importance of consequences, the 'illocutionary force', of linguistic communication. Researchers have since been led to examine communication in terms of the effect that utterances achieve. That effect has implications for both the production аnd comprehension of an utterance; both modes of performance serve bring the communicative act to its ultimate purpose. Second language learners need to understand the purpose of communication, developing an awareness of what the purpose of a communicative act is and how to achieve that purpose through linguistic terms.

How to negotiate effectively

1. What is negotiation?

Negotiation is an essential part of the every-day business life. It can take place at any time and in any place. Negotiation is a kind of meeting, but contrary to the latter it may be held in some unexpected and uncomfortable place such as the street or on the stairs.

There are several definitions of negotiation. It is said to be "the process for resolving conflict between two or more parties whereby both or all modify their demands to achieve a mutually acceptable compromise". Thus, it is "the process of changing both parties' views of their ideal outcome into an attainable outcome".

The need of negotiation arises when we are not fully in control of events. Negotiations take place to handle mutual differences or conflict of:

• interests (wages, hours, work conditions, prices: seller vs. buyer);

• rights (different interpretations of an agreement).

The aim of a negotiation is to come to an agreement which is acceptable to both sides, and to preserve the overall relationships. While specific issues are to be negotiated, common interest are yet still to be maintained. Negotiations do not mean "war". Negotiators can still be friends and partners.