4.Lexico-semantic grouping in Modern e. Lexicon

The meaning relations that hold within the voc-ry of a lg b/n words themselves are called lex. orsense relations.Lexemescan be grouped together into lex. fields on the bases of shared meaning & that most, if not all, the voc-ry of a lg can be accounted for in this way. The description of meaning, the definition of lexemes is then undertaken within each lexico-semantic field & involves defining each lexeme in relation to the other lexemes in its field. Hence, we distinguish b/n synonymic, antonymic & hyponymic fields.

The term synonymyderives from Greek ‘syn’(same) & ‘nymy’(name) & deals with sameness of meaning, when one & the same meaning / alternatively the same meaning is expressed by more than 1 word. Synonyms can be used interchangeably. e.g. “discover” & “find”: We have found/ discovered the boys hiding in the shed (syn).But: AFleming discovered penicillin in 1928. e.g. “keep” & “retain”: Keep / retain your ticket for further inspection.But: we keep the door locked all night. So, in none of these cases the pairs appear to be interchangeable in all contexts. The definition of synonyms as interchangeable in all contexts is sometimes referred to asstrict synonymy. But many linguists doubt if the synonymy of this kind occur at all. When we talk ab synonymy, we are thinking much rather as pairs of words that can substitute for each other in a wide range of contexts, but not necessarily absolutely, or of that, having the same general reference. e.g. big – large, freedom – liberty, first – initial.

Modern definition: synonyms may differ in connotations having the same denotation. e.g.denotation connotation(degree): to like- warm feeling; to admire–warmer; to love- the strongest emotion

Traditional definition (based on the conceptual criteria): Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differ in stylistic characteristics (shades of meaning). e.g. to begin (stylistically neutral), to start (colloquial speech), to commence (bookish).

Each Synonymic grouphas a dominant element. Thesynonymic dominantis the most general term. e.g.to look– to stare – to glance – to gaze, to question –to ask– to enquire – to interrogate.The synonymic dominant is characterized by a followingfeatures: * high frequency of uses, * broad combine ability (- to be used in combination with various classes of words), * broad general meaning, * lack of connotations.

Sources of synonyms * Latin / French borrowings. e.g. begin (E): commence (F), initiate (L), fine (E): beautiful (F). * euphemisms “eu” – well, “phemi” – I speak. It is a way of speaking by which an unpleasant, improper / offensive things are designated by an indirect & milder term. The rules of euphemisms lie in religions taboo, which dictated the avoidance of certain subject, especially death, sex & some bodily functions, devil, Such euphemisms are called superstitious taboos(devil=the Prince of Darkness; God=Lord; to die=pass away). Euphemisms is a frequent occurrence in modern E. & it is spread in many spheres of life-social taboos (lavatory= lady’s / gentleman’s room, rest room) They may be used not to hurt smb’s feelings: “stupid” – not exactly brilliant, “dirty” – unclear, untidy,…

Antonymymeans ‘opposite’+’name’ & deals with oppositness of meaning.Antonyms– 2 or more words of the same category of parts of speech, which have contrasting meanings. They usually appear in pair: good – bad, light – heavy, alive – dead. Kinds of antonyms: *Gradable. (gradual opposition) They are mostly adj.. e.g. hot – warm – cool – cold, young – middle-aged - old. *Complementary. The denial of one of the member of the pair applies the assertion of the other member. e.g. male – female, dead – alive. *Conversives, or relational antonyms. 1 member of the pair is the converse of the other. They represent 2 opposite perspectives of the same relation. e.g. husb& – wife, to receive – to give (if Mary receives chocolate from Bill, then Bill gives chocolate to Mary).

Hyponymymeans ‘under’+’name’. It is another kind of relationship b/n words, which is based on the relations of the inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word (calledhyponym) is included in that of another, a more general word (hyperonym).

e.g. star (superordinate term) – sun (hyponym), flower – tulip.