Imagery

In philosophy "image" denotes the result of reflection of the object of reality in man's consciousness. On the sensible level our senses, ideas might be regarded as images. On a higher level of thinking images take the form of concepts, judgements, conclusions. Depending on the level of reflecting the objective reality ( sensual and conceptual) there are 2 types of images:

1. Art - reflects the objective reality in human life. While informing us of a phenomenon of life it simultaneously expresses our attitude towards it.

2. Literature - deals with a specific type of artistic images, verbal - is a pen - picture of a thing, person or idea expressed in a figurative way in their contextual meaning in music - sounds. The overwhelming majority of Iinguists agree that a word is the smallest unit being able to create images because it conveys the artistic reality and image. On this level the creation of images is the result of the interaction of two meanings: direct (denotation) and indirect (figurative). Lexical expressive meanings in which a word or word combination is used figuratively are called tropes. The verbal meaning has the following structure:

1. Tenor (direct thought) subjective;

2. Vehicle (figurative thought) objective;

3. Ground is the common feature of T and V;

4. The relation between T and V;

5. The technique of identification (The type of trope);

e. g. She is sly like a fox (simile). Images may be individual, general.

a) deal with concrete thing or idea e.g. Thirsty wind.

b) embrace the whole book e. g. War and Peace.

c) visual

e. g. the cloudy lifeage of the sky

d) oral - created by sound imitations

13. Stylistic use of phraseology

Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units:a) fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages, e.g. on Shank’s mare - (on foot), at sixes and sevens - (in a mess) etc;b) unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle ( to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor) etc;c) collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc.

Set phrases possess certain properties of individual words. Some of them are elevated: an earthly paradise; Some are subneutral: to rain cats and dogs; to be in one's cups (= to be drunk);  Among the elevated phrases we can discern the same groups as among the elevated words: a) archaisms — the iron in one's soul ('permanent embitterment'); Mahomet's coffin ('between good and evil'); to play upon advantage ('to swindle'); b) bookish phrases — to go to Canossa ('to submit'); the debt of nature ('death'); the knight of the quill ('writer'); gordian knot ('a complicated problem'); c) foreign phrases — a propos de bottes ('unconnected with the preceding remark'); mot juste ('the exact word'). Subneutral phrases can also be divided into: a) colloquial phrases — alive and kicking ('safe and sound'); a pretty kettle offish ('muddle'); b) jargon phrases — a loss leader ('an article sold below cost to attract customers'); c) old slang phrases — to be nuts about ('to be extremely fond of); to shoot one's grandmother ('to say a non-sensical or commonplace thing'); to keep in the pin ('to abstain from drinking'); to kick the bucket, to hop the twig ('to die'). Even what might be called neutral phrases produce a certain stylistic effect as opposed to their non-phrasal semantic equivalents (to complete absence of phrases in the whole text)r Correct English and good English are most certainly not identical from the viewpoint of stylistics. Idioms and set expressions impart local colouring to the text;  Absence of set phrases makes speech poor and in a way unnatural: something like a foreigner's English. On the other hand, excessive use of idioms offends the sense of the appropriate.  A very effective stylistic device often used by writers consists in intentionally violating the traditional norms of the use of set phrases. Often the key-words of well-known phrases are purposely replaced. Thus, unmasking the inhuman 'philosophy of facts' in his novel Hard Times, Dickens ironically exclaims Fact forbid! instead of God forbid!. Mark Twain replaces the epithet in the expression The Golden Age, naming satirically his contemporary epoch The Gilded Age. A number of curious instances of distorting 'literalizing', combining mid opposing phraseological expressions to achieve stylistic effects are adduced by L. A. Barkova, who studied commercial advertising.

8. The expression is obviously derived from the internationally known phrase the other side of the medal. Changes in spelling (attaining a new meaning and at the same time preserving the phonetical form of the original set expression) are also resorted to. The well-known precept Waste not, want not (the idea of which nis 'wasting will make one suffer from want of what has been wasted', or to put it shorter, 'wasting brings suffering') is used by the producer of dietary foods, hinting in his advertisement at the disadvantage of being fat: Waist not, want not. A furniture shop praises its sofas: Sofa, So Good! (from so far, so good ). A special device is the interaction of set phrases in an ad for a new cookbook: The last word in French cookbooks by the first lady of French cooking. The phrases last word and first lady make an antithesis, thus enhancing the expressive force of the statement. Sometimes allusions are made use of. The ad recommending Smirnoff's Silver (a famous brand of whisky) says that it is for people who want a silver lining without the cloud (the allusion is to the proverb Every cloud has a silver lining, i.e. 'everything that is bad has a good side to it'). The advertiser's assertion without the cloud could be a hint that the consumer will have no hang-over afterwards.