5.External&internal causes of changes in t langs.

Extralinguistic factors which influence t lang development are those coming from outside t lang itself.T example of extraling factors is t following: economic development,which brings new terminology to t vocabulary or military extension.

Intralinguistic factors are those which happen inside t lang.They have nothing in common with t society,cos they exist only inside t lang as a system

T example of intr.ling.factors could be t following:

Changes of gram.system or phonetic structure of t word.The main example is t change from synthetic to analytical structure.

8.Pliny’s classification of Germanic tribes.

Pliny the Elder wasn’t a scientist,but a traveller,but after his acquaintance with Germanic tribes he left a basic classification of them.He classified them according to t geographical areas which they inhabited.

1.The Vindili(including the Goths&the Burgundians)were the tribes who lived in the eastern part. 2.The Ingaevones-t north-western part(t Saxons). 3.T Iscaevones-t western part on t Rhine(t Franks). 4.T Hermiones-t southern part. 5.T Peucini&Bastarne who lived near ncides Rumania. 6.T Hilleviones in Scandinavia—northern part of the territory.

This classific coincides with t modern point of view and is correlated with modern Germanic langs. The physical features of each tribe were very similar to each other. Tacitus described them as people with blond hair,blue eyes and big frames. Other sources tell of reddish-blond-haired figures that were well built and long skulled. Their facial features are preserved on Roman monuments.

7.Sources of our knowledge of early Germanic society.

Our knowledge of the ancient Germans is based on the testimonies by Greek&Roman writers, geographers,historians&travellers,who were interested them.The earliest of them was t Greek traveller&astronomer Pytheas from Massilia who lived in the 4^th century BC.He sailed from his native town through the scriptio to the Baltic. His book hasn’t come down to us,but only some pieces of it.In his book he tried to classify Germanic tribes,but that classification wasn’t a classific at all,cos it looks like a discription of life of ancient Germans. Pytheas was the 1^st who mentioned Teutons.

Pliny the Elder wasn’t a scientist,but a traveller,but after his acquaintance with Germanic tribes he left a basic classification of them.He classified them according to t geographical areas which they inhabited.

The real appearance of Germans in history began with their contact with Romans. Roman writer Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the War in Gaul gives many chapters to them(he dealt with them on the Rhine).

17.Rhotacism

Rhotacism is a regular phenomena in the system of Germanic consonants. It got the name from the Greek letter P(rho) and expresses the change of voiceless sound S into voiced R through the middle step Z. I.E maisa -Goth maiza- O.E. maira(more). The phenomena of Rhotacism appeared if the preceeding to S vowel was unstressed. If stress follows on any other sound,there was no Rhotacism.