Lexical Stylistic Devices

“Emotion and expressivity are most intensely conveyed by use of semantic stylistic means”12 , thus the literal use of language treats reality in the true light of its existence while the figurative use of language treats reality in the terms of an individual imagination, feeling and attitude. In other words literal language states facts and ideas, figurative language unfolds their emotional and expressive interpretations. The figurative use of language evokes an individual emotional response to reality.

Here we can distinguish four groups of SD.

1.1 Interaction of Dictionary and Contextual Logical Meanings.

Metaphor

“A Metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual meaning based on similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts”13 . Metaphor is usually called a compressed or hidden simile. For example, The wind had dropped and the snow, tired of rushing round in circles trying to catch itself up, now fluttered gently down until it found a place on which to rest, and sometimes the place was the Pooh’s nose and sometimes it wasn’t, and in a little while Piglet was wearing a white muffler round his neck… (A. Miln)

Instead of description how much snow has fallen the author uses the metaphor “white muffler” round Piglet’s neck and the reader understands that the weather is snowy. The example given above may serve as an illustration of genuine metaphors, which are absolutely unexpected or quite unpredictable. Those which are commonly used in speech and, therefore, are sometimes fixed in dictionaries are trite metaphors (for instance, flood of tears).

“The expressiveness of the Metaphor14, writes V.Kukharenco, is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects (concepts): the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own “legal” name. The wider the distance between these two objects the more striking and unexpected is the Metaphor.”

A.Avtenieva believes that “Metaphor always expresses two meanings of one and the same word. The first is an “old” one (lingual) and the second is a “new” one (contextual)” .15

If a Metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with Personification. For instance, How sweet to be a Cloud

Floating in the Blue

Every little cloud

Always sings aloud… (A.Miln)

In this example Winnie-the-Pooh compares himself with a Cloud.

Metonymy

Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meaning. “Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects and is based on their contiguity.”16 Since the types of relation between two objects can be finally limited they are observed again and again, and Metonymy in most cases is trite (to earn one’s bread). “Genuine Metonymy reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another on the ground of some strong impression, produced by a feature of the thing or material.”17

E.g.: He went about her room after his introduction, looking at her pictures, her bronzes and clays, asking after the creator of this, the painter of that… (Th. Dreiser)

“The scope of transference in Metonymy is much more limited than that in Metaphor, - writes V.Kukharenko, - which is quite understandable: the scope of human imagination identifying two objects (phenomena, actions) on the grounds of commonness of one of their innumerable characteristics is boundless, while actual relation between objects are more limited.”18 E.Aznaurova considers that fixed associations lie in the basis of Metonymy. “However, she writes, unlike associations caused by the context or by some extra linguistic factors, Metonymy appears on the basis of associations potentially permanent for the certain types of relations: items of clothing – person, parts of body – person, etc.”19

Irony

According to I.Galperin Irony is a SD also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. Thus in the passage, “You seem so sad Eeyore.”

“Sad? Why should I be sad? It’s my birthday, the happiest day of the year.”

the word “happiest” acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning. Skrebnev writes “irony is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings within the same context, which is sustained in oral speech by intonation.”20

1.2 Stylistic Devices based on the Interaction between the Free and Phraseological Meanings of a word (or between the Meanings of two Homonyms)

Zeugma

“Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical, but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal and on the other, transferred.”21For example, Dora was plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. (B.Show)

This SD is particularly favoured in English Emotive Prose and in poetry.

Pun

It is difficult to draw distinction between Zeugma and Pun. They are both based on polisemy. “The only reliable distinguishing feature, writes I.Galperin, is a structural one: Zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb, which is made to refer to different subjects or objects. The pun is more independent.”22 Pun may be the result of the speaker’s intention to violate the listener’s expectations. Like in the following example, (Pooh wishes Eeyore Happy Birthday) “Many happy returns of the day!”

“Thank you Pooh. I’m having them”, - said Eeyore (meaning the burst balloon).

“Many happy returns of the day” is a quite traditional phrase. The word “returns”, that is punned here, may mean: (pl.) – returned or non-sold goods, an industrial waste that can be refined.

1.3 Stylistic Devices based on Interaction between the logical and emotive meanings of a Word.

The emotive meaning or emotional colouring of a word plays a considerable role in stylistics. An utterance cannot be understood clearly without evaluation of the author’s attitude towards the things described.

Epithet

Epithet is as well-known as Metaphor because it is widely mentioned by critics, scholars and teachers. Its basic feature is emotiveness and subjectivity. For example, Piglet rolled the rest of the way home so as to get his own nice and comfortable color again. (A.Miln)

I.Galperin considers that the Epithet is subtle and delicate in character. “Some people even consider that it can create an atmosphere of objective evaluation, whereas it actually conveys the subjective attitude of the writer.”23 Epithet has remained over the centuries the most widely used SD. Scientists distinguish the following types of epithets24 :

Word epithets, i.e., epithets expressed by any emotional part of speech in the attributive or adverbial functions “wood pigeons were complaining gently to themselves.” (A.Miln)

Two-step epithets, i.e., epithets supplied by intensifiers (sharply conscious)

Inverted epithets: the shadow of the smile

Phrase epithets, including into one Epithet an extended phrase or a completed sentence, “Eeyore said it in a quite-between ourselves-and-don’t-tell- anybody whisper”. (A. Miln).

Transferred epithets are formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes, and expressed by adjectives: “Piglet who had never been really fond of both shuddered a long indignant shudder”. (A. MIln).

Oxymoron

“Oxymoron is a combination of two words mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective whose meanings came to clashes”25 For example, “Eeyore went on in a loud whisper.”(A.Miln) V. Kukharenco believes that “oxymorons rarely become trite for their components linked forcibly repulse each other and oppose repeated use. However, there are some colloquial oxymorons which show a high degree of the speaker’s emotional involvement in the situation, as in “awfully pretty”, “terribly kind” and suchlike.”26

1.4. Stylistic Devices based on intensification of a certain feature of a Thing or Phenomenon.

In this group of SD one of the qualities of the object is made to sound essential.

Simile

“Simile is a figure which draws a comparison between two different things in one or more aspects”27 . For instance, “I shall try to look like a small black cloud. That will deceive them, said Winnie-the-Pooh”. (A. Miln).

I. Galperin warns that ordinary comparison and simile must not be confused. He writes, “They represent two diverse processes. Comparison means weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing their sameness or difference. To use a Simile is to characterize one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things.”28 It is easily distinguished in the example above (a bear and a cloud are objects from different classes of things).

Periphrasis

“Periphrasis is the renaming of an object by a phrase that brings out some particular feature of the object.”29 For example, Jean nodded without turning and slid between two buses so that two drivers simultaneously used the same qualitative word. (H. G. Wells) The essence of the device is that it is decipherable only in context. If a Periphrasis is understandable outside the context it is not a Stylistic Device and it is called traditional, dictionary or language periphrasis. Here are some examples of well-known English periphrases: “my better half” (my wife), “a gentleman of the long robe” (a lower).

I. Galperin distinguishes two types of Periphrasis: logical and figurative.“Logical Periphrasis is based of one of inherent properties or a passing feature of the object described as in “instruments of obstruction” (=pistols), “the most pardonable of human weakness” (=love). Figurative Periphrasis is based either on Metaphor or Metonymy, the key-word of the collocation is the word that used figuratively” 30 as in the his neck over flowed his collar and there had recently been published a second edition of his chin (P.G. Wodehouse).

Hyperbole

“Hyperbole is a highly emphatic SD brought about by extravagant overstatement of an emotive experience. It intensifies one of the features of the object to such a degree as will show it utter absurdity.”31 For instance, Hyperbole is used to describe Piglet’s feelings when he burst the balloon, BANG!!!??? Piglet lay there wondering what had happened. At first, he thought that the whole world had blown up; and then he thought that perhaps only the Forest part of it had; and then he thought that only he had, and he was now alone or somewhere on the Moon and would never see Christopher Robin or Pooh, or Eeyore again.(A.Miln)

Hyperbole differs from mere exaggeration in that it is intended to be understood as an exaggeration. It this connection A. Potebnja writes,”Hyperbole is the result of the kind of intoxication by emotion which prevents a person from seeing things in their true dimensions… If the reader (listener) is not carried away by the emotion of the writer (speaker), hyperbole becomes a mere lie.”32

2. Syntactical Stylistic Devices

Syntactical SD deal with the syntactical arrangement of the utterance that results in the emphasis of the whole construction.

2.1 Stylistic Inversion

“Inversion is a SD in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that predicate precedes the subject or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair.”33 For example, Never had Henry Pootel-Piglet run so fast as he ran then. (A. Miln) We should remember that the stylistic device of Inversion should not be confused with grammatical inversion which is a norm in interrogative construction: Is he still hesitating?

2.2 Repetition

“Repetition is a recurrence of the same word, word combination or phrase for two or more times.”34

The sentence Christopher Robin said nothing, but his eyes got larger and larger, and his face got pinker and pinker. According to I. Galperin is not a Repetition as a SD proper, but a means by which the excited state of mind of the character is shown. He believes that “when used as a SD Repetition does not aim at making a direct emotional impact. On the contrary, the stylistic device of Repetition aims at logical emphasis. An emphasis that is necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance.”35 For example, “We woke up in the morning, said Rabbit, and what do we find? We find a strange Animal among us. An Animal of whom we have never heard before: An Animal, who carries her family about her in her pocket.” (A. Miln)

We will dwell upon two types of Repetition: Anaphora and Epiphora. If the repeated word comes at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases we have Anaphora as in the example above. If the repeated unit is placed at the end of consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases we have the type of Repetition called Epiphora as in: You have a house, Piglet and I have a house, and they are very good houses, and Christopher Robin has a house and Owl and Kanga and Rabbit have their houses and even Rabbit’s friends and relations have houses, but poor Eeyore has nothing. (A. Miln)

2.3 Climax

“Climax is an arrangement of sentences, or the homogeneous parts of sentences which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance or emotional tension in the utterance”36 as in: He (Piglet) threw the bottle as far as he could throw – splash! – and in a little while it bobbed up again on the water and he watched it floating slowly away in the distance, until his eyes ached with looking and sometimes he thought it was a bottle, and sometimes he thought it was just a ripple on the water which he was following and then suddenly he knew that he would never see it again and that he had done all that he could do to save himself. (A. Miln)

The repetition of “he thought”, then the using of the words “he knew” makes the reader anticipate the outcome of this passage. And, eventually, the reader sees it: “he had done all that he could do to save himself.”

2.4. Anticlimax

“Climax suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats expectations of the reader and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea is called Anticlimax.”37 For instance, So he (Pooh) started to climb out of the hole. He pulled with his front paws, and pushed with his back paws, and in a little while his nose was out in the open again… and then his ears… and then his front paws… and then his shoulders and then – “Oh, help”, said Pooh, - I’d better go back.”(A.Miln)