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163Nutrition and Health
7. Write the advantages of genetically modified foods.
8. Define undernutrition and overnutrition.
9. Write effects of artificial ripening.
10. What is kwashiorkor?
Multiple Choice Questions [answer is in bold]
1. Kwashiorkor is caused by severe deficiency of:
a. Proteins
b. Vitamins
c. Minerals
d. None of above
2. Night blindness is caused by a deficiency of:
a. Vitamin D
b. Vitamin A
c. Vitamin K
d. Vitamin E
3. What are micronutrients?
a. Nutrients needed in large amounts
b. Nutrients that provide energy directly
c. Nutrients needed in small amounts regularly
d. Nutrients that regulate body temperature
4. Which vitamins are classified as fat-soluble?
a. Vitamin B and C
b. Vitamin D and E
c. Vitamin A and C
d. Vitamin B and K
5. What is the primary function of vitamin A?
a. Promotes calcium absorption
b. Acts as an antioxidant
c. Aids in blood clotting
d. Enhances nerve impulse transmission
6. What is the main source of vitamin D?
a. Citrus fruits
b. Fish oil
c. Green leafy vegetables
d. Nuts
164 Social Pharmacy
7. Which vitamin is synthesized by bacteria in the large
intestine?
a. Vitamin A
b. Vitamin B
12
c. Vitamin C
d. Vitamin D
8. What is the primary function of vitamin K?
a. Supports bone and teeth formation
b. Acts as an antioxidant
c. Aids in blood clotting
d. Enhances nerve impulse transmission
9. Which mineral is essential for bone mineralization?
a. Sodium
b. Calcium
c. Iron
d. Magnesium
10. What is the primary function of iodine in the body?
a. Aids in blood clotting
b. Supports bone formation
c. Essential for thyroid hormone synthesis
d. Enhances nerve impulse transmission
11. Which of the following is a symptom of undernutrition?
a. Obesity
b. Swollen stomach
c. High weight-for-height
d. Dry hair and skin
12. How is malnutrition assessed according to the text?
a. Blood tests
b. Body mass index (BMI)
c. Physical examination
d. All of the above
13. Which is a recommended method for preventing
malnutrition?
a. Limited exercise
b. Excessive calorie intake
c. Eating a balanced diet
d. Avoiding supplements
165Nutrition and Health
14. What is kwashiorkor?
a. A type of cancer
b. A protein deficiency disease
c. An obesity-related disease
d. A bacterial infection
15. Which ill effect is associated with junk foods?
a. Inadequate growth and development
b. Improved immunity
c. Balanced cholesterol levels
d. Enhanced memory
16. What is the primary method used for producing geneti-
cally modified foods?
a. Hybridization
b. Cross-breeding
c. Genetic engineering (GMOs)
d. Organic farming
17. Which was the first commercially grown genetically
modified whole food crop?
a. Corn
b. Tomato (Flavr Savr)
c. Wheat
d. Potato
18. What is the definition of a nutraceutical?
a. Any food product with added preservatives
b. A substance providing health benefits and prevent-
ing diseases
c. Highly processed foods with artificial additives
d. Foods fortified with vitamins and minerals
166 Social Pharmacy
INTRODUCTION
The term microbiology was introduced by French chemist,
Louis Pasteur. Microorganisms or microbes are living
organisms, which are so small that they can’t be seen without
the use of the microscope. Microbiology deals with the study
of shape, size, structure reproduction, and physiology of all
living microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae,
helminths). Medical microbiology deals with the study of those
microorganisms, that cause infectious diseases as well as the
methods of protection against such diseases.
Microorganisms are now employed for various beneficial
purposes to the human race like vaccination, fermentation,
antibiotic production, food industry, dairy industry, and even
sewage treatment. Genetic engineering is a new field where
improved strains of useful organisms are prepared and
employed in the production of many products useful to human
beings.
BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY
Microbiology is a broad term that deals with many disciplines.
The various branches of microbiology are shown in Table 4.1.
Classification of Microorganisms
Taxonomy is the systematic arrangement of organisms in
groups. Nomenclature is the science of systematic naming.
Microorganisms may have the characteristics of both, plant as
Introduction to Microbiology
4
167Introduction to Microbiology
well as animal kingdoms. Because of this difficulty, micro-
organisms were put into a separate kingdom, Prostista. The
simplest classification of microorganisms is as follows.
Fig. 4.1: Classification of microorganisms
From the view point of a pharmacist, bacteria are the most
important microorganism.
A. Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic, prokaryotic, rigid-walled, unicellular,
free-living organisms without chlorophyll, having either DNA
or RNA. They are capable of performing all essential functions
of life, e.g., growth, metabolism, and reproduction. They belong
to the class Schizomycetes and order Eubacteriales.
Table 4.1: Branches of microbiology
S. Branch Description
No.
1. Virology Study of virus
2. Mycology Study of fungi
3. Microbial ecology Study of interrelationships between microbes
and environments
4. Bacteriology Study of bacteria
5. Protozoology Study of protozoans
6. Phycology Study of algae
168 Social Pharmacy
Bactria can be classified as follows:
1. Based on shape:
i. Bacillus (rod shape); bacilli is plural of bacillus.
a. Coccobacilli: They are usually short bacilli.
b. Fusiform bacilli: They are bacilli tapered at both
ends.
c. Filamentous bacilli: They are bacilli growing in long
filaments.
ii. Coccus (spherical shape); cocci is plural of coccus.
a. Cocci in pair: Diplococcic, e.g. pneumococci, gono-
cocci, meningococci
b. Cocci in cluster: Staphylococci, e.g. Staphylococcus
aureus
c. Cocci in chain: Streptococci, e.g. Streptococcus lactis
d. Cocci in group of eight: Sarcina
e. Cocci in group of four: Tetrad
iii. Spirilla (spiral shape): e.g., Spirillum minus.
iv. Vibrio (comma shape): e.g., Vibrio cholera.
v. Spirochaetes: They are thin, spiral, motile, flexible
organisms with several spirals, e.g. Treponema pallidum.
vi. Spirilla: They are longer rigid rods with several curves
or coils, e.g. Spirillum minus.
Fig. 4.2: Shapes of bacteria
169Introduction to Microbiology
2. Based on cell wall structure:
i. Gram-positive
ii. Gram-negative
3. Based on oxygen requirements:
i. Aerobic: Live in the presence of oxygen
ii. Anaerobic: Live without oxygen
iii. Facultative anaerobes: Can live in both environments
4. Based on source of energy:
i. Heterotrophs: Obtain their energy by consuming other
organisms.
ii. Autotrophs: Make their food by using the energy of
sunlight.
iii. Saprophytes: Use decaying life forms as a source of
energy.
iv. Hemotrophs:
a. Growth temperature—thermophilic, mesophilic,
psychrophilic.
b. Nutritional requirements—simple and complex.
c. Ability to grow in living tissues—saprophytes,
parasites, commensals.
B. Archaea
Archaea or Archaebacteria are prokaryotic cells that differ from
true bacteria in their cell wall structure. They lack peptido-
glycans and can survive under extreme environmental
conditions. Archaeans can be divided into the following groups
depending on the habitat:
i. Methanogens: Methane-producing organisms.
ii. Halophiles: Archaeans that live in salty environments.
iii. Thermophiles: Can live at extremely hot temperatures.
iv. Psychrophiles: Cold-temperature archaeans.
Archaeans use different energy sources like hydrogen gas,
carbon dioxide, sulfur, and sunlight to make energy.
C. Fungi
Fungi are single-celled or very complex multicellular
eukaryotic microorganisms with a true nucleus, e.g.
170 Social Pharmacy
mushrooms, fungi, molds, and yeasts. Fungi are larger than
bacteria, have more complicated structures, and reproduce both
sexually and asexually. Some fungi produce toxic substances,
called mycotoxins. Most fungi are multicellular. The cell wall
of fungi is composed of chitin.
Based on nutrition, kingdom fungi can be classified into
3 groups:
i. Saprophytic: The fungi that obtain their nutrition by feeding
on dead organic substances, e.g. Rhizopus, Penicillium,
and Aspergillus.
ii. Parasitic: Obtain nutrition by living on other living orga-
nisms, e.g. Taphrina and Puccinia.
iii. Symbiotic: Having an interdependent relationship with
plants, e.g. Lichens.
iv. Decomposers: Obtain nutrients by absorbing organic
material from their environment.
D. Protozoa
Protozoa are microscopic unicellular aerobic eukaryotes that
have a nucleus and complex organelles. They obtain
nourishment by absorption or ingestion through specialized
structures. They make up the largest group of organisms in
the world in terms of numbers, biomass, and diversity. Their
cell walls are made up of cellulose. Protozoa have been
traditionally divided based on their mode of locomotion:
i. Flagellates: They produce their food and use their whip-
like structure called flagella to propel forward and
locomotion, e.g. amoeba.
ii. They have cilia that beat to move, e.g. paramecium.
iii. Amoeboids: They live in the freshwater and sea. They have
false feet or pseudopodia used for feeding and locomotion,
e.g. amoeba.
iv. Parasitic sporozoans: Sporozoans are non-motile endo-
parasites. They don’t have any specialized organ for
locomotion, for example: Plasmodium.
171Introduction to Microbiology
E. Algae
Algae, also known as cyanobacteria or blue-green algae, are
unicellular or multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotes. Algae
possess chlorophyll and, therefore, can obtain nourishment by
photosynthesis. They live in water, damp soil, and rocks and
produce oxygen and carbohydrates. Cyanobacteria are
considered to be the origins of green land plants.
F. Viruses
In Latin ‘virus’ means poison. Viruses are considerably smaller
than bacteria and cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope.
They are nucleoprotein particles capable of multiplication in
certain living cells. They differ from bacteria in: (i) being
intracellular obligate parasites, (ii) containing either DNA or
RNA, and (iii) do not multiply by binary fission and reproduce
solely through nucleic acid. Viruses vary in size from 17 nm to
400 nm. Most viruses are circular but they may be round,
cubical, or like tadpoles. Some are irregular and some are brick-
shaped. Viruses often infest prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
causing diseases.
G. Helminths
Helminths are eukaryotic organisms consisting of flatworms
and roundworms. Their eggs and larvae are often microscopic.
Although helminths are not microorganisms, yet they can be
easily seen with the naked eye, their eggs and larvae are often
microscopic.
H. Chlamydiae (Bedsonia)
Chlamydiae were considered viruses due to their intracellular
parasitism but they differ from the viruses as below:
1. They possess both DNA and RNA.
2. They contain a variety of enzymes.
3. They have ribosomes but viruses do not have ribosomes.
4. They multiply by binary fission.
5. They have muramic acid in their cell wall like bacteria.
6. They are about 200 to 300 nm in diameter and are Gram-
negative.
172 Social Pharmacy
Chlamydiae grows well in the yolk sac of embryonated eggs.
Mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits are infected by inoculation. They
are rapidly killed by heat, formalin, and phenol. Their multi-
plication is inhibited by many antibiotics. Diseases commonly
caused by Chlamydiae are psittacosis, lymphogranuloma
venereum, and Trachoma.
I. Rickettsiae
Rickettsiae are minute microorganisms having the properties
of bacteria and viruses. They are non-motile, non-encapsulated,
do not produce spores and capsules, and look like small bacteria
readily visible with the light microscope. Like viruses, they
grow only in living cells. They resemble bacteria because:
i. they have cell walls,
ii. they divide by binary fission,
iii. they are visible with the light microscope, and
iv. they contain both DNA and RNA enzymes for metabolic
activities. They differ from viruses in their large size and
their inability to pass through bacteria-retaining filters.
Rickettsiae are pleomorphic, i.e. they occur in more than one
morphological form such as rod-shaped, spherical, filamentous,
or irregularly shaped organisms. They are intestinal parasites
of blood-sucking arthropods such as fleas, lice, ticks, and mites.
The infection is transmitted to man by the bite of these insects.
They can be readily cultivated in the yolk sac of developing
chick embryos. Rickettsiae are readily destroyed at 56°C and
are sensitive to Tetracycline and Chloramphenicol. Penicillin
and sulfonamides are ineffective for Rickettsiae.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
The term epidemiology is derived from the word epidemic
(epi=among; demos=people; logos=study). Epidemiology is
defined as “the study of the distribution and determinants of
disease and disability in the community, and the application
of this study to control health-related events and states.”
Epidemiology is also defined as “the study of distribution
and determinants of health-related states/events and measures
to prevent or control the disease.”