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(4.43%) was found to be maximum in plant cultivated in Cu
500
mg kg
-1
amended
soil (Fig. 3.6). From previous reports, it was observed that in metal polluted soils,
aromatic plants can be grown as there is no effect on the quality and yield of the
aromatic crops (Angelova et al. 2006). Our results are similar with studies done by
many authors on various aromatic plants like basil, dill and peppermint under
different contamination conditions (Zheljazkov et al. 2006
, 2008a, b; Stancheva
et
al.
2009).
3 Response of Secondary Metabolites of Ocimum gratissimum L.... 37
Fig. 3.3 Gas chromatogram of the oil of the plant grown under stress level Cu
500
mg kg
-1
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38 M. Bisht et al.
Fig. 3.4 Gas chromatogram of the oil of the plant grown under stress level Cu
700
mg kg
-1
3.4 Conclusion
Eugenol was the major compound in O. gratissimum L. grown in different copper
stress condition, and the percent age of eugenol was increased at higher copper
(Cu
900
mg kg
-1
) stress condition. While the percentage (Z)-β-ocimene, germ acrene
D and caryophyllene oxide, which was in less amount in control found much higher
after copper stress. This might be due to the direct binding of free metals present
under stress conditions to the functional groups (carboxyl, imidazole, thiol groups)
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of protein leading to changes in their conformation and function, which can further
influence biosynthetic pathways of secondary metabolites. Thus, it can be concluded
that in copper stressed soil, we can promote medicinal and aromatic plants as cash
crop for their useful applications in the food, pharmaceutical and perfumery
industries.
3 Response of Secondary Metabolites of Ocimum gratissimum L.... 39
Fig. 3.5 Gas chromatogram o
f the oil of the plant grown under stress level Cu
900
mg kg
-1
Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the Head, Department of Chemistry,
D. S. B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital for necessary lab facilities and Botanical Survey
of India for plant identification.
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40 M. Bisht et al.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Control
Z- ( ) Ocimene Eugenol (E)- Caryophyllene Germacrene D
a
c
a
a
a
e
d
d
d
d
b
b
c
c
c
b
b
e
e
e
Cu500 mg kg-1 Cu700 mg kg-1 Cu900 mg kg-1
Amendments
Percentage of oil
Cu270 mg kg-1
β
Fig. 3.6 Changes in the volatile constituent of secondary metabolites of O. gratissimum after
copper stress condition
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43
Resilience Mechanism of Medicinal Plants
Under Harsh Environment
4
Tiago Benedito dos Santos, Silvia Graciele Hülse de Souza,
Hélida Mara Magalhães, Ilara Gabriela Frasson Budzinski,
and Ana Cláudia Pacheco Santos
Abstract
Research centers have alerted us to the current global climate change scenario and
considered its impact on different cultures. Indeed, plants are often exposed to
various adverse environmental conditions capable of generating stress, negatively
affecting their growth and productivity. Medicinal plants contain low-molecular-
mass compounds called secondary metabolites, including phenolics, flavonoids,
alkaloids, lignans, steroids, and terpenoids. These phytochemicals play signifi-
cant roles in medicinal plants’ interactions with the environment for adjustment,
adaptation, and defense. However, few studies describe the medicinal plant
resilience mechanism in a hostile environment. Undoubtedly, it is our obligation
as researchers to propose strategies to civil society that aim to mitigate the effects
caused by these environmental adversities, as well as to develo p plants that can be
resilient to these environments, emphasizing medicinal plants. Therefore, this
chapter summarizes the main resilience mechanisms of medicinal plants under
harsh abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, heat stress, nitrogen deficiency, and
aluminum toxicity) and mentions possible strategies for plant development in
adverse environments. The proper exploration of this information can result in
essential tools to design studies that can help these plants. First, however, it is
T. B. dos Santos (✉) · A. C. Pacheco
Postgraduate Program in Agronomy, Universidade do Oeste Paulista (Unoeste), Presidente
Prudente, SP, Brazil
S. G. H. de Souza · H. M. Magalhães
Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology Applied to Agriculture, Universidade Paranaense
(UNIPAR), Umuarama, PR, Brazil
I. G. F. Budzinski
Department of Genetics, Max Feffer Laboratory of Plant Genetics, “Luiz de Queiroz” College of
Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
#
The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte
Ltd. 2023
D. Singh et al. (eds.), Stress-responsive Factors and Molecular Farming
in Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4480-4_4
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necessary to carry out investigations to help establish adaptation and mitigation
strategies and increase the resilience of medicinal plants, which could be
threatened in the future by climate change and global warming.
44 T. B. dos Santos et al.
Keywords
Climate changes · Environmental stress · Medicinal plants · Plant physiology ·
Plant resilience
4.1 Introduction
The current subject is global warming, and much is said about the innumerable
processes of elevation of the temperatures of the terrestrial surface and the oceans,
among other factors (drought, salinity, heat stress, nitrogen deficiency, and alumi-
num toxicity) (Zandalinas et al. 2021; Chaudhry and Sidhu 2022; dos Santos et al.
2022a; Noreen et al. 2022). This subject has been gaining attention due to the
potential impacts on natural and human systems. However, the vulnerability to the
effects of climate change ("CO
2
) is directly related to economic, social, cultural, and
governance factors, among other factors that contribute to this calamity that we are
experiencing at the present moment. We know that “climate change” refers to any
change along its path, either due to natural variability (which occurs in all cultures)
or due to some activity carried out by man. According to the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) publication, greenhouse gas concentration has
increased since the 1750s due to great human activity. In its fifth Assessment Report
on Changes in the Planet’s Climate (IPCC AR5), the IPCC warns of an increase in
temperature of the order of 1.2 to 4 °C by 2100. Unfortunately, medicinal plants have
been somewhat neglected by the scientific community in awareness campaigns.
There is an increasing need for scientists to prepare specific reports highlighting
the potentially harmful effects that climate change can trigger on these crops.
Indeed, these climate changes will directly affect all plants (productio n of medic-
inal plants). These changes include physiological changes that affect plants in
several ways, including photosynthetic pigments, osmolytes (e.g., proline), some
elements (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, among others), water use
efficiency, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO
2
, photosystem
II activity, and membrane stability index (Chaudhry and Sidhu
2022; Alhaithloul
et al.
2019; Li et al. 2020a; Golezani and Abdoli 2022). For example, seed germina-
tion is a complex process that must quickly recover from the drying suffered at the
end of the maturation process (seed) and provide the cellular events mentioned as
essential to allow the emergence of the embryo (Fernández-Pascual et al. 2019; Reed
et al. 2022). This event can certainly be altered by climate change. It is well known
that the ability to germinate under the influence of different abiotic stresses is
extremely important for seeds, as this ensures their survival and regeneration
(Klupczynska and Pawlowski
2021).
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4 Resilience Mechanism of Medicinal Plants Under Harsh Environment 45
Therefore, in this study, we present the information and new strategies sought to
elucidate medicinal plants’ physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses in
the face of the new realities that climate change has brought to light. We also include
a brief review and explanation on abiotic stresses in medicinal plants. We believe
that to prevent undesirable physiological and biochemical changes, among other
changes, medicinal plants must possess the resilience to overcome these abiotic
stresses that can adversely affect pharmaceutical properties, etc.
4.2 Abiotic Stresses in Medicinal Plants: Effects
and Consequences
Men have used medicinal plants as the oldest form of treatment for diseases (Sharma
et al.
2017). More recently, modern techniques for identifying compounds, preceded
by a series of tests, have enabled the expansion of the use of medicinal plants. Since
then, the pharmaceutical industry has produced medicines and cosmetics from active
ingredients extracted from these plants (Lubbe and Verpoorte
2011; Süntar 2020;
Mofokeng et al. 2022). In recent decades, the agrochemical industry has also
explored the use of these plants since tests have demonstrated their biocidal potential
against fungi, insects, and weed s (Lubbe and Verpoorte
2011).
However, the production of medicinal plants brings with it significant challenges
that are linked to the precariousness of crops, the scarcity of technologies, the
absence of breeding programs, and the understanding of how changes in the climate
affect the development, yield, and synthesis of compounds by the plants (Lubbe and
Verpoorte
2011). According to Tol (2018), poorer and hotter countries are more
vulnerable to these climate changes because they depend more on agriculture for
their economies, are geographically positioned in warmer places on the globe, and
have limited adaptive capacity due to low technologies of production. Thus, abiotic
stresses caused by drought, cold, heat stress, flooding, exposure to heavy metals,
salinity, ultraviolet radiation, and nutritional deficiencies can have productive
impacts on the production chain of medicinal plants, compromising the availability
of raw materials (Li et al. 2020b). The consequences of these limitations can lead to
increased production costs, reduced supply, lower productivity, abandonment of
activities by producers, changes in yield and essential oil (EO) composition (Li et al.
2020b; Ncube et al. 2012), and even discouragement in the development of more
sustainable products by industry, especially agrochemicals (Lubbe and Verpoorte
2011).
In recent years, research has promoted a breakthrough in identifying these
compounds in medicinal plants. Still, understanding plant x cultivation x environ-
ment interaction has yet to keep pace with market demand (Ncube et al.
2012).
Additionaly, the chemical compounds of medicinal plants are mainly extracted from
the leaves in structures called peltate trichomes, which produce the EO, which can
also be obtained from the roots and stems, flowers, fruits, and seeds (Li et al.
2020b).
Abiotic stresses in medicinal plants can affect four critical processes, namely, the
following: (1) plant development, reducing shoot size and root system, biomass
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accumulation, flowering, and fruit formation; (2) physiological and
morphoanatomical alterations resulting mainly from chlorophyll degradation,
reduced photosynthetic rate, changes in stomatal conductance and stomata mor-
phometry; (3) biochemical alterations caused in the activities of enzymes, mainly
those key ones that are associated with significant metabolic pathways for the
synthesis of compounds, such as phenylalanine ammonia lyases, and also those
l
inked
to the antioxidant mechanisms of plants; (4) EO yield and final quality of
chemical composition (Fig.
4.1) (Alhaithloul et al. 2019; Ncube et al. 2012; Cheng
et al.
2018; Caser et al. 2019).
46 T. B. dos Santos et al.
Therefore, it is urgent to
understand how different types of abiotic stresses affect
these processes in medicinal plants. So that the impacts can be mitigated and the
production volume is not interrupted (Li et al.
2020b). Optimization of propagation
and cultivation techniques will ensure the supply of high-quality planting materials
to local producers and the supply of harvested materials to the industry. At the same
time, it allows the optimization of secondary metabolite production by manipulating
the environment of growing plants (Mofokeng et al.
2022).
4.3 Effects of Drought and Heat Stress on Medicinal Plants
Of the abiotic stresses, drought and heat stress deserve special attention, given their
occurrence, magnitude, and accentuation in the scenario of climate change. A report
produced by the IPCC concluded that limiting global war ming to 1.5 °C will still
cause negative impacts on the most vulnerable and damage different sectors of the
economy (Connolly et al. 2020). It is aggravated by the fact that many species of
medicinal plants are cultivated in places far from their origin source, not adapted to
local conditions, and the damag e caused by abiotic stresses (Wang et al.
2020).
In general, it was observed that at more severe levels of drought, temperature, or
cold, there was a drastic reduction in the growth of medicinal plants, with impacts on
size, biomass, a decrease in the diameter and emission of new shoots, and a decline
in the emission of flowers and bulbs (Li et al. 2020b). However, these changes were
still variable depending on the species and cult ivar analyzed. For example,
Alhaithloul et al. (
2019) verified that Mentha piperita and Catharanthus roseus
had a reduction of 28.99, 44.88, and 45.45% for height, fresh, and dry weight in the
aerial part in M. piperita and 48.63, 33.68, and 42.58%, respectively, in C. roseus
after the plants were exposed to a temperature of 35 °C and absence of water for
2 weeks. Other tests were conducted based on soil moisture limitation; in this case,
reductions above 70% led to drastic drops in plant biomass for Matricaria recutita
L. (Baghalian et al. 2011) and Thymus daenensis Celak (Bistgani et al. 2019a),
Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Cheng et al. 2018)., Salvia dolomitica Codd (Caser
et al. 2019), and six other species of the Lamiaceae family (García-Caparrós et al.
2019).
On the physiology and biochemistry of medicinal plants, moisture reductions
above 50% restricted nutrient assimilation, amino acid synthesis, and cell multipli-
cation (Aslani et al.
2023), interrupted photosynthesis, increased oxidative damage,
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4 Resilience Mechanism of Medicinal Plants Under Harsh Environment 47
Fig. 4.1 Abiotic stress in medicinal plants and its consequences
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