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xii Editors and Contributors
Contributors
Madhoolika Agrawal Laboratory of Air Pollution and Global Climate Change,
Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
India
Shashi Bhushan Agrawal Laboratory of Air Pollution and Global Climate
Change, Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Vibha Agrawal Department of Biotechnology, Shri Agrasen Kanya P. G. College,
Varanasi, India
Rathi Muthaiyan Ahalliya Department of Biochemistry, Karpagam Academy of
Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Ramesh Kumar Ahirwar Department of Botany, Guru Ghasidas
Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
Mamta Bisht Department of Chemistry, School of Applied & Life Sciences,
Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, India
Department of Chemistry, D. S. B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital, India
Navneet Bithel Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukula Kangri
(Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Ilara Gabriela Frasson Budzinski Department of Genetics, Max Feffer Labora-
tory of Plant Genetics, “Luiz de Queiroz” College of Agriculture, University of São
Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
Khushboo Chakrwal Department of Biotechnology, Shri Agrasen Kanya P. G.
College, Varanasi, India
R. Chandrakanth Department of Molecular Biology, Yuvaraja’s Col lege, Univer-
sity of Mysore, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Ishita Chatterjee Department of Biotechnology, Shri Agrasen Kanya P. G.
College, Varanasi, India
Jaidev Chauhan High Altitude Plant Physio logy Research Centre, HNB Garhwal
University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
Pradeep Dobhal High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, HNB Garhwal
University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
Darshan Dorairaj Department of Plant Cell Biotechnology, CSIR-Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, India
Akruti Gupta Vinob a Bhave University, Hazaribag, Jharkhand, India
ICAR-Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Ranchi, India
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Editors and Contributors xiii
Kishore Kumar Gupta Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag, Jharkhand, India
Sanjay Kumar Gupta ICAR-Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology,
Ranchi, India
Manisha Hariwal Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
India
Ajay Hemdan High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, HNB Garhwal
University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
Deepanshi Jaiswal Department of Botany, Mahatma Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya
(P.G.) College, Firozabad, India
Preksha Jaiswal Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Central University, Lucknow,
India
Ankit Joshi Department of Chemistry, School of Applied & Life Sciences,
Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, India
Gopalakrishnan Velliyur Kanniappan School of Medicine, Bule Hora Univer-
sity Institute of Health, Bule Hora University, Bule Hora, Ethiopia
Kanti Kiran Department of Plant Biotechnology, Gujarat Biotechnology Univer-
sity, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Dugganaboyana Guru Kumar Division of Biochemistry, School of Life
Sciences, Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to
be University), Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Jajur Ramanna Kumar Division of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences,
Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to be Univer-
sity), Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Rajeev Ranjan Kumar High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, HNB
Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
Sachin Kumar Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukula Kangri
(Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Sandeep Kumar Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukula Kangri
(Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Sanjay Kumar Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Hélida Mara Magalhães Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology Applied to
Agriculture, Universidade Paranaense (UNIPAR), Umuarama, PR, Brazil
Abhijeet Mahana French Associates Institutes for Agriculture and Biotechnology
of Drylands, Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research (BIDR), Ben-Gurion
University of the Negev, Negev, Israel
Aradhana Mishra Veer Bahadur Singh Purvanchal University, Jaunpur, India
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xiv Editors and Contributors
Prashant Kumar Mishra Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag, Jharkhand, India
Shreshtha Mishra Department of Biotechnology, Shri Agrasen Kanya P. G.
College, Varanasi, India
Sudhanshu Mishra Depa rtment of Biotechnology, School of Applied and Life
Sciences, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Chethan Kumar Mukunda Department of Biochemistry, JSS College of Arts
Commerce and Science, Mysore, Karnataka, India
M. C. Nautiyal High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, HNB Garhwal
University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
W. Jabez Osborne Department of Biosciences, School of Bio Sciences and Tech-
nology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Chitra Pande Department of Chemistry, D. S. B. Cam pus, Kumaun University,
Nainital, India
Akanksha Pandey Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukula Kangri
(Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Avantika Pandey Laboratory of Air Pollution and Global Climate Change, Depart-
ment of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Priya Patel Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Smaranika Pattnaik Laboratory of Medical Microbiology, School of Life
Sciences, Sambalpur University, Sambalpur, India
P. Prasad High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, HNB Garhwal
University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
Vijay Kant Purohit High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, HNB
Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
Minakshi Rajput Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied and Life
Sciences, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Sadashivaiah Department of Molecular Biology, Yuvaraja ’ s College, University
of Mysore, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Rajesh Saini Department of Botany, MMV, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
India
Ana Cláudia Pacheco Santos Postgraduate Program in Agronomy, Universidade
do Oeste Paulista (Unoeste), Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil
Tiago Benedito dos Santos Postgraduate Program in Agronomy, Universidade do
Oeste Paulista (Unoeste), Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil
Priyanka Shah Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Editors and Contributors xv
Diksha Sharma School of Pharmacy, IEC University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh,
India
Gunjan Sharma Department of Plant Biotechnology, Gujarat Biotechnology
University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Shivangi Sharma Department of Biosciences, School of Bio Sciences and Tech-
nology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Sahana Shivaramakrishna Division of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences,
Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to be Univer-
sity), Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Chandrashekhar Singh Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technol-
ogy, Indian Institute of Tech nology, BHU, Varanasi, India
Divya Singh Department of Mulberry Physiology, Central Sericultural Research
and Training Institute, Mysore, India
Monika Singh Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied and Life
Sciences, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Silvia Graciele Hülse de Souza Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology Applied
to Agriculture, Universidade Paranaense (UNIPAR), Umuarama, PR, Brazil
Akhileshwar Kuma r Srivastava Departm ent of Plant Cell Biotechnology, Central
Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India
L. Sunil Department of Plant Cell Biotechnology, CSIR-Central Food Technologi-
cal Research Institute, Mysuru, India
Geeta Tewari Department of Chemistry, D. S. B. Campus, Kumaun University,
Nainital, India
Kavindra Nath Tiwari Department of Botany, MMV, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Vaishnavi Tripathi Department of Biotechnology, Shri Agrasen Kanya P. G.
College, Varanasi, India
Richa Upadhyay Department of Botany, Mihir Bhoj Postgraduate College, G.B.
Nagar, India
Shweta Verma Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Rahul Yadav Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Wafia Zehra Department of Biotechnology, Shri Agrasen Kanya P. G. College,
Varanasi, India
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1
An Overview of Medicinal Plants: Drugs
of Tomorrow
1
Ramesh Kumar Ahirwar
Abstract
Instead of providing medication, plants have always provided humans with food,
clothing, shelter and other basic requirements. Complex traditional medical
systems, such as Ayurvedi c, Unani, Chinese and others, have their roots in plants.
Some of the most significant medications that are still used today were developed
by these medic al systems. African, Australian, Central and South American
medical systems are among the lesser-known medical systems. Today, the search
for novel molecules has gone a somewhat different route, with chemists
employing the study of ethnography and ethnopharmacology as a guide to find
new sources and classes of chemicals. Due to its richness, the flora of the tropics
plays a significant role in offering fresh hints in this context. However, the
Convention on Biological Diversity must also address the issues of sovereignty
and property rights. This page emphasises this, offers an overview of plant
molecule types and gives examples of molecules and secondary metabolites
that have contributed to the creation of these pharmacologically potent extracts.
The publication also discu sses the necessity for plant extract validation and some
information on the use of herbal products in the creation of functional foods,
while consistently emphasizing the safety, effectiveness and quality of
phytopharmaceutical products.
Keywords
Traditional medicine · Ayurveda · Herbal medicine · Phytochemicals · Drug
development · Medicinal plants
R. K. Ahirwar (✉)
Department of Botany, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur,
Chhattisgarh, India
e-mail: ramesh.ahirwar@ggu.ac.in
#
The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte
Ltd. 2023
D. Singh et al. (eds.), Stress-responsive Factors and Molecular Farming
in Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4480-4_1
https://t.me/medicina_free
2 R. K. Ahirwar
1.1 Introduction
Humans have historically depended on nature to provide for their fundamental
necessities, including the creation of food, housing, clothes, transportation,
fertilizers, flea pores, fragrances and at least medicine. For thousands of years,
comprehensive traditional medicinal systems have been built on the foundation of
plants, and these systems still provide the human race cutting-edge therapies today.
Although some of the therapeutic properties attributed to plants have been proven
wrong, medicinal plant therapy is based on hundreds and thousands of years of
empirical discoveries (Gurib-Fakim 2006). The oils of the Cedrus species (Cedar),
Glycieriza glabra (Mulethi) and Papavar somniferum (Poppy juice) are still used
today to treat conditions ranging from coughs and colds to cross-acetic infections
and inflammation. The earliest written records, which are on cuneiform clay tablets,
are from Mesopotamia and date back to about 2600
BC. According to Egyptian
medical literature, bishop’s herb (Ammi majus) can be used to cure vitiligo, a skin
disorder that is characterised by the loss of pigment. This plant has recently given
rise to a medication (β-methoxyporalen) that is used to treat T-cell lymphoma,
psoriasis and other skin conditions.
The search for possible chemotherapeutic drugs in nature is still a topic of
interest. More than 50% of all medications used in clinical settings across the
world are made from natural materials or their derivatives. No less than 25% of
the total is provided by the tallest plants. At least a dozen powerful medications have
been made from flowering plants over the past 40 years, including the diosgenins
made by Dioscorea spp., which are the source of all anovulatory tracers; Reserpine
and other anti-hypertensive alkaloids and quilted by Rouwolphia spp.; Pilocarpin
spp., which is used to treat glaucoma and “dry mouth,” made by a group of South
Tropical woods are home to about half (125,000) of all kinds of flowering plants. A
substantial pool of potential medicinal species continues to be supported by tropical
rainforests. They continue to give natural product chemists essential compounds that
can be used as building blocks for the creation of new drugs. Only 1% of tropical
species have had their pharmacological potential studied thus far, which greatly
increases the potential to discover new compounds. For species that are only found
in tropical rainforests, this ratio is even lower. About 50 drugs have been derived
from tropical plants so far. High annual extinction rates are a concern because one of
the most significant justifications for protecting tropical forests has been associated
with the existence of drugs unrecognised by modern medicine. Three primary
sources of anticancer medications on the market have been derived from North
American plants that have undergone clinical testing and have been utilised medici-
nally by Native Americans, despite their discovery through a sudden laboratory
observation. These sources are Papav (Asimina spp.) and Western Yow (Taxus
brevifolia), useful in the treatment of leukaemia and ovarian cancer, testicul ar cancer
and pulmonary lymphoma.
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1 An Overview of Medicinal Plants: Drugs of Tomorrow 3
1.2 Indian Traditional Medicine System
Perhaps the oldest medical system is Ayurveda. It is regarded as systemic medicine’s
inception. In actuality, it is a realistic and universal manual for preserving harmony
and balance in the system. Many of the theories attributed to Dioscorides, who
inspired Hippocrates, are said to have originated in India. While Greek and Middle
Eastern books discuss concepts and medications of an Indian provenance, ancient
Hindu works on medicine do not mention foreign medicine. The Indian terms Ayar
(life) and Veda are the origin of the name Ayurveda (knowledge or science).
“Knowledge of life” is what it implies from here (Dharma). In India, songs and
poetry that academics and doctors had to memorise and recite verbatim were used to
transmit knowledge and wisdom. The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda are
among the oldest, dating back to the year 2000
BC. In the first century BC, the first
school that taught Ayurvedic medicine was established. The Great Samhita was
authored about 500
AD at the University of Banara (or the Encyclopedia of
Medicine).
Ayurveda is comparable with galenic medicine as it is based on bodily humour
(dosas) and inner life energy (prana), which are thought to support digestion and
mental function. Earth (Prithvi), water (Jada), air (Vaju) and space (Akase) make up
both inhabited and unoccupied surroundings, including man. Understanding the
concepts of impurity and cleans ing is crucial to understanding these traditions.
Between various factors, disease is unequal. Popular Neem (Azadirachta indica),
Centella asiatica (Gotu Kola), Cinnamomum camphora (Camphor), Elettaria car-
damom, Rauwolfia serpentina (Indian snakeroot), Santalum album (Sandalwood),
Terminalia kinds (Myrobolan) and Withania somnifera (Aswargandha).
1.2.1 Herbal Remedies
The use of plants for medical and therapeutic purposes to treat illness and enhance
human health is known as herbal medicine or phytomedicine. Phytochemicals are
secondary metabolites found in plants. Phyto is a Greek word that means “plant.”
These substances shield plants against microbial diseases or insect infestations.
Active components, known as phytochemicals, are substances that are used as
drugs or medicines because they have therapeutic characteristics. Phytochemicals
can be categorised according to their chemical makeup (Table 1.1, Fig. 1.1). Plants
that are used as food and in traditional medicine are more likely to produce chemicals
that have pharmacological activity. The standardizatio n of raw materials comes as a
significant problem for the herbal sector when the quality of an herbal product is
questioned. During growth, processing and harvest, herbal plants are readily pol-
luted. The two main issues with herbal medications that have been observed are
adulteration and heavy metal poisoning. Therefore, in order to produce novel herbal
drugs and stay up with other efforts in drug development, it is vital to increase the
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S. No. Examples
quality and quantity of bioactive components. There are many therapeutic plants
available today, and researchers have examined the bioactive components of these
plants on a scientific and clinical level. Table 1.2 provides a list of plant species and
the active ingredients that are used to treat various human disorders (Table 1.2)
(Shakya 2016).
4 R. K. Ahirwar
Table 1.1 Phytochemicals classification
Structure
of
chemicals
Phytochemicals
name
Name of
chemicals
1. Alkaloids Caffeine Morphine, caffeine, berberine
and codeine
Figure 1.1a
2. Glycosides Andrographolide Amygdalin, gentiopicrin,
morpholine, polydalin and
cinnamyl acetate
Figure 1.1b
3. Polyphenols
(phenolics,
tannins and
flavonoids)
Resveratrol Caffeic acid, flavones, rutin,
naringin, hesperidin,
chlorogenic, tannic, gallic,
ellagic acids, as well as
quercetin, resveratrol,
kaempferol and quercitrin
Figure 1.1c
4. Saponins Diosgenin Hecogenin and diosgenin Figure 1.1d
5. Terpenes
(steroids and
carotenoids)
Artemisinin Lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin,
β-carotene, -carotene
and
artemisinin
Figure 1.1e
6. Anthraquinones Rhein Rhein, salinos poramide and
luteolin
Figure 1.1f
Fig. 1.1 Chemical structure. (a) Caffeine;
(b) andrographolide; (c) resveratrol; (d) diosgenin; (e)
artemisinin; (f) rhein
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(continued)
1 An Overview of Medicinal Plants: Drugs of Tomorrow 5
Table 1.2 Bioactive compounds of medicinal plants top 25
S. No. Scientific name
Common
name Family Bioactive compound Pharmacological action References
1. Allium sativum L. Lahsun/
garlic
Amaryllidaceae Allicin Cardioprotective, anti-
inflammatory
Singh and Singh
(2008)
2. Aloe vera (L.)
Burm. f.
Gwarpatha/
Ghritkumari
Xanthorrhoeaceae Campesterol, aloin and
emodin and β-Sisosterol
Healing capabilities, anti-viral
and anti-tumour properties,
Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective,
effect of antiseptic
Sahu et al.
(2013)
3. Artemisia
absinthium L.
Absinthe or
wormwood
Compositae Artemisinin Antimalarial drug Krishna et al.
(2004)
4. Azadirachta
indica A. Juss.
Neem Meliaceae Di- and tri-terpenoids,
limonoids (nimbidinin)
Chemo preventive, anti-colorectal
cancer and carcinoma inhibitors
purifier of blood
Biswas et al.
(2002)
5. Berberis vulgaris
L.
Barberry Berberidaceae Berberine Antidiabetic, hepatoprotective,
antimicrobial.
Rahimi-Madiseh
et al. (2017)
6. Bergenia ciliata
(Haw.) Sternb.
Frilly
Bergenia/
hairy
bergenia
Saxifragaceae Bergenin Anti-arthritis Chauhan et al.
(2012)
7. Camptotheca
acuminata Decne.
Happy tree Cornaceae Irinotecan and Topotecan Anticancer agents (for the
treatment of small cell lung and
ovarian cancers)
Li and Zhang
(
2014)
8. Catharanthus
roseus (L.) G. Don
Sadabahar Apocynaceae Alkaloid (Vinblastine and
Vincristine)
Anticancer Gajalakshmi
et al. (
2013)
9. Cinchona rugosa
Pav.
Cinchona
Rubiaceae quinine Antimalerial, antiparasitic effect
Titanji et al.
(
2008)
10. Curcuma longa L. Haldi Zingiberaceae Flavonoid (Curcumin) Anticancer, anti-inflammatory,
hepatoprotective
Akram et al.
(
2010)
11. Plantaginaceae Digoxin
Used in heart diseases.
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Table 1.2 (continued)
S. No. Scientific name
Common
name Family Bioactive compound Pharmacological action References
Digitalis
lanata Ehrh.
Grecian
foxglove/
woolly
Foxglove
Negi et al.
(2012)
Swertia chirayita
(Roxb.) Buch.-
12. Nigella sativa L. Fennel
flower/black
cumin
Ranunculaceae Thymoquinone Antidiabetic, anticancer,
antimicrobial, Hepato-
renalprotective and gastro-
protective
Paarakh (2010a)
13. Ocimum
tenuiflorum L.
Tulsi Lamiaceae Taxol, Ursolic acid
Apigenin and Citral
Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-
bacterial, anti-pyretic and anti-
cancer properties
Pradhan et al.
(2022)
14. Phyllanthus
emblica L.
Amla Phyllanthaceae Punigluconin,
pedunculagin, emblicanin A
and emblicanin B
Hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic,
anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-
viral and anti-cancer
Khan (2009)
15. Piper nigrum L. Black
pepper/
Kalimirch
Piperaceae Piperidine,
dehydropipernonaline
Anti-carcinogenic, anti-
hyperlipidaemic, Epilepsy
Ahmad et al.
(2012)
16. Podophyllum
peltatum L.
Mayapples Berberidaceae Alkaloid (Etoposide and
Teniposide)
Anticancer agents Sharma (2013)
17. Ricinus communis
L.
Castor bean/
castor oil
plant
Euphorbiaceae Ricinine, an alkaloid and
lectin (ricin)
Anti-tumour, hypoglycemic,
antioxidant and hepatoprotective
Jena and Gupta
(
2012)
18. Silybum
marianum (L.)
Gaertn.
Milk thistle Compositae Silibinin (Flavonoid
silymarin)
Anti-inflammatory,
anti-cancer
and
liver tonic for hepatic
diseases
Das et al. (2008)
19. Chiretta Gentianaceae Mangeferin, amarogenitine,
ophelic acid and
sawertiamarine
Antiviral, anti-diabetic and
hepato-renal protective
Joshi and
Dhawan (
2005)
6 R. K. Ahirwar
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