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result, it was shown that Tulsi seed exerts control over both humoral and
cellular immunological responses via the GABAergic system.
Godhwani et al. investigated the immunoregulatory effect of a methanolic
extract and an aqueous suspension of Tulsi leaves in the treatment of
antigenic challenge induced by Salmonella typhosa and sheep erythrocytes,
as well as the antibody agglutination in the Widal and sheep erythrocyte
agglutination tests in albino rats.
113
The results indicated that an im-
munological stimulation of the humoral immunogenic response occurred as
a result of an increased antibody titer in the Widal and sheep erythrocyte
agglutination tests. Immunomodulation restores and enh ances the body’s
reaction to antigens such as bacteria, germs, viruses, and allergies. Tulsi is a
powerful immunomodulatory herb. The distilled extract of fresh leaves was
found to alter the humoral immune response. Aqueous extracts of leaves had
both proliferative and inhibiting effects on splenocytes in vitro. When sple-
nocytes were cultured with 31.25, 62.5, or 125 g ml
1
, a 42.17, 55.42, and
47.38 percent increase in spleen cell proliferation was seen in contrast to the
negative control. The methanolic extract of O. sanctum leaves in combination
with an aqueous suspension induced a clinically detectable im-
munostimulation of the humoral immune response.
6.9.5 Antiinflammatory Activity
O. sanctum reduces acute and chronic inflamma tion as the oils extracted
from fresh leaves and seeds of O. sanctum were discovered to exhibit anti-
inflammatory properties in experimental rats suffering from hind paw
edema produced by carrageenan, serotonin, histamine, and prostaglandin-
E-2.
114
O. sanctum’s anti-inflammatory properties may be achieved through
inhibition of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase. The main goal of this study
was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory properties of Ocimum species extracts,
with differing quantities of unsaturated fatty acids and different suscepti-
bility to inflammation triggered by phlogistic agent administration. Ac-
cording to recent research, the most efficient plant to reduce paw edema i s
O. basilicum, which contains the highest concentration of linolenic acid.
Fixed oil present in specific Ocimum species inhibit s improved vascular
permeability and leukocyte migration is illustrated by carrageenan-induced
inflammation. The seeds of these three plants were investigated for their
anti-inflammatory activities in rats with paw edema caused by carrageenan,
leukotrine, or arachidonic acid. At a maximum proportion, O. sanctum seed
oil prevented leukotrine-induced paw edema.
115
Tulsi extracts, as well as petroleum ether and chloroform fractions, were
tested for their anti-inflammatory activity in a Carrageenan-induced model
of acute inflammation. Additionally, the effect of methanolic extract on
lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide (NO) generation i n macrophages
was investigated.
116
The results indicated that a methanolic extract of
Tulsi (100, 200, and 400 mgkg
1
body weight) considerably reduced
Carrageenan-induced paw edema; the c hloroform fraction was the most
132 Chapter 6
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effective (66%, p 0.001). The extract was non-toxic up to 125 mg ml
1
in
mouse peritoneal macrophages and inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced
NO generation at concentrations of 0–100 mmml
1
. The meth anolic extract
of Tulsi was found to have substantial anti-inflammatory properties. The
chloroform fraction of the Tulsi methanolic extract demonstrated the
greatest anti-inflammatory effect.
117
6.9.6 Antiulcer Activity
O. sanctum is an anti-inflammatory and ulcer-fighting plant. The fixed oil
included in it contained an ulcer-fighting component. And it did so in rats by
obstructing the stomach’s output with a pylorus ligation. It’s possible that its
anti-ulcer properties stem from its effects on lipoxygenase, antihistaminic,
and antisecretory enzymes.
118
Leukotriene antagonists and 5-lipoxygenase
inhibitors have both been proven to be effective in reducing ulcers caused by
alcohol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) in investigations.
Alcohol and NSAID-induced ulcers, as well as the 5-lipoxygenase pathway
and leukotriene antagonism, are all treated with O. sanctum fixed oil. His-
tamine is known to cause stomach ulcers due to increased stomach acid
secretion and histamine’s vasospastic effect. This explains why O. sanctum
fixed oil inhibited histamine-induced vasospasm and histamine-mediated
gastric output. Mast cell degranulation and histamine release have been
linked to gastric ulcers caused by reserpine exposure, which is aided by a
cholinergic mechanism. The antiulcer properties of O. sanctum fixed oil are
most likely due to histamine and anticholinergic components.
119
In a model of indomethacin-induced ulceration, the gastroprotective ef-
fect of O. sanctum was investigated and compared to that of omeprazole. This
two-year study was undertaken at Navodaya Medical College and Research
Centre. The gastroprotective efficacy of an aqueous extract of O. sanctum was
investigated and compared to that of omeprazole utilizing an indomethacin-
induced gastric injury model. In different groups of rats, O. sanctum
(200 mg kg
1
or 400 mg kg
1
) or omeprazole (10 mg kg
1
) was delivered
alone. When compared to a control, O. sanctum had a substantial (p 0.05)
preventive effect against indomethacin-induced stomach ulcers. O. sanctum
had a gastroprotective effect equivalent to that of the conventional medi-
cation omeprazole. O. sanctum had a strong gastroprotective effect against
indomethacin-induced stomach injury, which may be related to its inhibi-
tory effect on 5-lipoxygenase, mucoprotective activity, and antisecretory
function.
120
6.9.7 Effect on the Central Nervous System
Various stem, leaf, and stem callus extracts (made on a slightly modified
Murashige and Skoog’s medium supplemented with 2,4-dichlorophenonyacetic
acid and kinetin) were assessed for anticonvulsant efficacy using the maximal
electroshock paradigm with Phenytoin as the standard. Extracts of stem, leaf,
Scientific Evaluation of the Role of Ocimum sanctum in Ayurvedic 133
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and stem calli were found to be effective at suppressing tonic convulsions
induced by transcorneal electroshock.
121
In ‘open field’ studies, an etha-
nolic extract of O. sanctum leaves prolonged the period of loss of reflex in
mice given pentobarbital, decreased the incidence and intensity of elec-
troshock and pentylenetetrazole-induced convulsions, and reduced the
fighting time and ambulation induced by apomorphine. In the forced
swimming behavioral despair model, the extract reduced immobility in a
manner similar to Imip ramine. This activity was suppressed by haloperidol
and sulpiride, indicating that it may involve dopaminergic neurons. When
the extract was combined with bromocriptine, a potent D2-receptor agonist,
a synergistic effect was reported in comparable trials. Nootrop ic drugs are a
relatively new class of pharmaceuticals used to treat organic impairments of
learning capacity. Joshi and Parle conducted a study in mice to determine
the nootropic and anti-amnesic effects of O. san ctum extract.
122
An aqueous
extract of the complete O. sanctum plant ameliorated the amnesic effec ts of
scopolamine (0.04 mgkg
1
), diazepam (1 mg kg
1
), and aging-induced
memory deficits in rats. The raised plus maze and passive avoidance
paradigms were used to study exteroceptive behavioral models. O. sanctum
extract significantly decreased transfer latency and increased step-down
latency as compared to the control (piracetam-treated), scopolamine-
treated, and aged groups of mice. Thus, O. sanctum formulations may be
beneficial in the treatment of cognitive disorders like dementia and Alz-
heimer’s disease. A 400 mg kg
1
(ip) methanolic extract of O. sanctum root
extract considerably increases mice’s swimming time in a despair swim test
model, showing that O. sanctum poss esses stimulant and/or anti-stress
properties.
123
6.9.8 Antihyperlipidemic Activity
The fixed oils are used to lower the lipid levels. O. sanctum has been shown to
reduce lipid levels in rats fed a high-fat diet in research. It restores lipids to
their normal condition and inhibits the lipid peroxidation process, which
causes lipids to degrade due to oxidation.
124
This influence was primarily
caused by linoleic and linolenic acids. Another study found that seed oil and
fresh leaves of O. sanctum reduce cholesterol, VLDL, and triacylglycerol levels
in rabbits and albino rats, while raising HDL cholesterol and net sterol
content in feces. An aqueous extract of the plant was given to Streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats for eight weeks, and the lipid profile was reported to be
improved. In rats treated with triton, Amrani et al. (2006) discovered that
the aqueous extract of O. sanctum had a significant hypolipidemic effect.
125
The presence of hypolipidemic and antioxidant chemicals in O. sanctum’s
extract was linked to its anti-hyperlipidemic activity. These findings
demonstrate that the active components in O. sanctum extract can be used
therapeutically in hyperlipidemic people, hinting that they may be advan-
tageous and paving the way for future study in the fields of hyperlipidemia,
atherosclerosis, and associated illnesses.
126
134 Chapter 6
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In rats fed a high fat diet, the antihyperlipidemic and cardioprotective
effects of a fixed oil produced from the leaves of O. sanctum were examined.
The findings revealed that the fixed oil in O. sanctum included five distinct
fatty acids, with alpha-linolenic acid being the most abundant. The anti-
hyperlipidemic effect of fixed oil was mostly due to a decrease in hepatic lipid
synthesis. Linolenic and linoleic acids present in O. sanctum fixed oil may be
responsible for the oil’s lipid-lowering and cardioprotective effects.
127
6.9.9 Antiarthritic Activity
In rats, the antiarthritic activity of the fixed oil obtained from O. sanctum
seeds was evaluated by Freund’s adjuvant arthritis, formaldehyde-induced
arthritis, or turpentine oil-induced joint edema. When the fixed oil was
utilized to inhibit the generation of inflammatory mediators, a significant
antiarthritic effect was reported in both arthritis models and turpentine oil-
induced joint edema (serotonin, histamine, bradykinin and PGE2). This
experiment established O. sanctum’s medicinal potential in rheumatoid
arthritis. As per a study performed on rats suffering from formaldehyde-
induced arthritis, fixed oils of OS acted as an anti-inflammatory on the
damaged paw. After 10 days of daily intraperitoneal administration of fixed
oils to rats with arthritis, significant improvement was observed.
128
6.9.10 Anthelmintic Activity
In vitro testing of the essential oil of O. sanctum and eugenol revealed sig-
nificant anthelmintic action in a Caenorhabditis elegans model. Euenol’s
ED50 value was 62.1 g ml
1
. Eugenol, the essential oil’s primary constituent,
is proposed to be the probable anthelmintic principle. When compared to
albendazole, ursolic acid contained in Tulsi has a high ability to paralyze
and kill worms. The purpose of one study was to extract ursolic acid (UA)
from O. sanctum and to test its anthelmintic and antibacterial efficacy
against E. coli. Ursolic acid, a significant bioactive molecule, was isolated
from an ethanolic extract of the O. tenuiflorum,orO. sanctum, plant. Ursolic
acid was extracted from an ethanolic extract of the plant O. sanctum in this
study. The disk diffusion and well diffusion methods were used to determine
its anthelmintic and antibacterial activities against E. coli and compare ur-
solic acid’s antihelmintic and antibacterial activity with that of the con-
ventional drugs albendazole and tetracycline, respectively.
129
The results indicated that the compound’s efficacy increased dosage-
dependently at concentrations of 15, 20, and 25 mg ml
1
. The results were
comparable to those obtaine d with the conventional antibiotic albendazole
at the same concentration. The disk diffusion and well diffusion methods
were used to screen ursolic acid for antibacterial activity. Antimicrobial
in vitro investigations indicated that ursolic acid may be active against a
variety of bacteria species and has a larger biocidal effect than ligand frag-
ments. The work demonstrated the significant anthelmintic and
Scientific Evaluation of the Role of Ocimum sanctum in Ayurvedic 135
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antibacterial activity of ursolic acid, which was effective against worms.
Ursolic acid was found to have the capacity to paralyze and kill parasitic
worms.
130
6.9.11 Antidiabetic Activity
O. sanctum has anti-diabetic effects, and an aqueous extract of Tulsi was
found to significantly lower blood glucose levels in rats in one study. Simi-
larly, multiple studies show that Tulsi’s hypoglycemic effect aids in the re-
duction of fasting blood sugar and HBA1c. Tulsi can also be used to treat
metabolic issues and can be used in combination with other therapies. It
aids in the biochemical breakdown of contaminants and is useful in the
treatment of liver disease.
131
Despite the fact that anti-diabetic efficacy has
been studied in a variety of animal models, clinical trials have been sparse.
The usage of O. sanctum in the treatment of diabetes mellitus is attracting a
lot of interest. Plant fibers, particularly soluble fibers, have been shown to
help with hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia treatment. The antidiabetic
activity of O. sanctum is thought to be due to the plant’s extract stimulating
adenylate cyclase or phosphatidylinositol, or having a direct effect on pan-
creatic cells by increasing calcium entry and therefore triggering insulin
release. One of the earliest randomized controlled clinical trials looked at
antidiabetic properties in 40 people with non-insulin dependent diabetes
mellitus (NIDDM). It was discovered that taking 2.5 g dried Tulsi leaf powder
orally twice daily on an empty stomach reduced fasting blood sugar levels by
up to 21 mg dl
1
and postprandial blood glucose levels by 15.8 mg dl
1
.
Another study used an aqueous extract of O. canum to help isolated pan-
creatic b-cells release insulin in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus.
132
It was found that rats given fructose and treated with O. sanctum extract for
30 days had considerably lower serum glucose levels than rats not treated with
the extract.
133
On the other hand, O. sanctum extract had no noticeable effect
on hyperinsulinemia. Vats et al. examined the effect of O. sanctum on 3 im-
portant carbohydrate metabolism enzymes glucokinase (gk), hexokinase (hk),
and phosphofructokinase (PFK), and also the glycogen content of insulin-
dependent (liver and skeletal muscle) and insulin-independent (kidneys and
brain) tissues in rats for 30 days using a streptozotocin (STZ). On the 15th and
30th days after 30 days of treatment of O. sanctum extracts at a dose of
200 mg kg
1
, plasma glucose levels reduced by roughly 9.06 and 24.4 percent,
respectively. O. sanctum considerably decreased renal glycogen concentration
in any tissue, but not liver glycogen concentration; also, O. sanctum effectively
corrected the action of glucokinase (gk), hexokinase (hk), and phospho-
fructokinase (PFK) distributed throughout the diabetic control.
134
6.9.12 Miscellaneous Activities
O. sanctum is a cardiac tonic that helps to avoid heart attacks, relieve tension,
and restore normal blood pressure. It has anti-arthritic and anabolic effects,
136 Chapter 6
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boosting muscle mass strength by accelerating protein synthesis. It relieves
sore eyes and helps to alleviate night blindness. Tulsi juice and honey are used
as an eyewash and anti-conjunctivitis medication to cure conjunctivitis. It
regulates and balances neurotransmitter levels in the brain, as well as the
neurochemistry of the brain. Tulsi extract aids in memory enhancement. The
essential oil of O. sanctum is responsible for the anthelmintic activity seen in a
Caenorhabditis elegans model in vitro.
135
O. sanctum is said to be a mosquito
repellent with considerable larvicidal activity. Anopheles stephensi, Aedes ae-
gypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus are among the mosquito species that are
resistant to it. The time it takes for blood to coagulate is prolonged by O.
sanctum fixed oil, and the percentage increase is comparable to that of aspirin,
which could be due to platelet aggregation inhibition. Furthermore, the oil
prolonged pentobarbitone-induced sleep-in rats, showing that the oil may have
an inhibitory effect on the cytochromic enzyme responsible for pentobarbitone
metabolism in the liver. In 9 day-old rat pups (25 mMkg
1
body weight), Gupta
evaluated the anticataract effects of O. sanctum extract on selenite-induced
cataract. O. sanctum (5 and 10 mg kg
1
body weight) administered in-
traperitoneally four hours before a selenite challenge lowers the incidence of
selenite cataract by 20% and 60%, respectively, and inhibits protein in-
solubilization.
136
Table 6.3 shows the biological activity of various chemical
compounds present in Tulsi plants.
6.10 Conclusion
While thousands of herbal plants exist globally, Tulsi is considered the queen
of herbs due to its exceptional medicinal capabilities. Taking the entire study
into account, O. sanctum or Tulsi is a traditionally and clinically proved me-
dicinal herb in terms of both its uses and efficacy. O. sanctum possesses a broad
spectrum of pharmacological activity, and it can be considered a medical gift
from nature. The use of medicinal plants to cure a variety of ailments dates all
the way back to ancient India and other emerging countries. Recent trends
indicate a dramatic increase in the use of herbal medications to treat a variety
of ailments among individuals in developed countries, as they give superior
therapeutic efficacy with fewer adverse effects. Numerous medicinal plants
have been evaluated for their potential efficacy in the treatment of major sick
situations, and even the WHO has proposed herbal ingredients for further
study in circumstances where current medications are not effective. It is highly
regarded among herbs with different biological potentials and offers tre-
mendous potential for further research in new areas. Historically, crude ex-
tracts of numerous plant components have been utilized for their anti-diabetic,
antioxidant, stress-relieving, antihyperlipidemic, and antibacterial activities. In
order to produce novel compounds with novel pharmacological potential, more
research on the chemical characteristics of O. sanctum is required. O. sanctum’s
long history of traditional use, broad spectrum of pharmacological properties,
and toxicity testing all indicate that it is a safe and valuable herb for clinical
uses. The present compilation of chemical components and their
Scientific Evaluation of the Role of Ocimum sanctum in Ayurvedic 137
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Table 6.3 Chemical constituents found in Tulsi plant with their biological activity.
Chemical constituent Characteristics Activity Ref.
Phenylpropene,
an allyl chain-
substituted
guaiacol
Germs, fungi and
infection with
antibacterial and anti-
inflammatory activities
137
Phenylpropene Used in insect traps and
lure products to attract
certain fruit flies
138
Phenylpropene Excellent tonic for the
mind and nerves. Also
good for tiredness,
headaches, digestive
problems, and
muscular aches
139
Multiple
components
Multiple biological
activity, highly
therapeutic
140
Natural bicyclic
sesquiterpene
An oxygenated terpenoid,
well known as a
preservative in food,
drugs and cosmetics,
has been tested in vitro
as an antifungal against
dermatophytes
141
Natural bicyclic
sesquiterpene
Cannabinoid-like
properties
142
138 Chapter 6
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Table 6.3 (Continued)
Chemical constituent Characteristics Activity Ref.
Sesquiterpenes Anti-proliferative effect 143
Monoterpenes Herbal scent and acts as a
plant defense and has
anti-fungal properties
144
Cyclic ether and a
monoterpenoid
Used in flavorings,
fragrances, and
cosmetics
145
An olefinic
natural organic
hydrocarbon
Analgesic activity 146
Geranial and
citral B
Cure of skin and hair
problems
147
Sesquiterpenes Pronounced anti-
inflammatory
148
Scientific Evaluation of the Role of Ocimum sanctum in Ayurvedic 139
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pharmacological properties will benefit future study on the O. sanctum plant
and the identification of novel therapeutic targets.
Funding
No funding has been provided.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding this
publication.
Table 6.3 (Continued)
Chemical constituent Characteristics Activity Ref.
Bicyclic
monoterpene
Effective anti-
inflammatory
149
3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-
octadienal or
lemonal
Holistic and alternative
medicine, potent
antiseptic and may prove
useful in treating gastro-
intestinal infections,
including H. pylori
150
Sesquiterpene Hyperglycemia, obesity 151
Essential oil
mainly contains
multiple
components
Counters elevated blood
sugar levels and is
highly beneficial in
diabetes, cancer, and
chronic bronchitis
152
140 Chapter 6
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Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Department of Pharmacognosy, ISF College
of Pharmacy, for providing the necessary facilities.
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