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cytoprotective prostaglandins or inhibition of leukotriene synthesis.
51
Similarly, the proulcerogenic effect of water extract of Boswellia sacra oleo
gum resin in rats was evaluated by Asad et al.,
52
and the extract was found to
increase the ulcer index and ulcer score. In pylorus-ligated rats, the extract
was found to increase the gastric content volume, free acidity, total acidity,
ulcer index and pepsin activity. The study also found that the extract was
able to exhibit dose-dependent proulcerogenic activity. The GCMS profile of
the extract revealed the presence of menthol, 3-cyclohexen-1-ol and octanoic
acid, whose presence may have contributed to the proulcerogenic effect.
52
Several other studies have also evaluat ed the effect of B. serrata and its role in
the aspirin-induced ulcer model.
53
4.7.5 Immune Response
The Ayurvedic response is that, if the body is kept in balance and if the immune
system is at peak efficiency, the chances of infections and various sorts of
inflammatory disorders are reduced. The underlying mechanism of the
immunomodulatory action of the herbal extracts includes macrophage stimu-
lation and modulation of the complement system. The modulation of these
systems can have a positive impact on both humoral and cellular immune re-
sponses. Single or prolonged oral administration of the extract at a dosage of
25–100 mg kg
1
per day for a duration of 21 days showed immunosuppressive
or immuno-potentiating effects, depending on the dosage and timings of drug
administration. The phytochemical constituents enhanced the phagocytic
function of the macrophages.
54
The immunomodulatory assessment of
B. carterii bird wood extract and isolated ingredients at a concentration of
1.00 mgml
1
was evaluated in a lymphocyte blast transformation assay. This
study found that the immunostimulatory activity of the combined extract was
greater than that of the individual components. The ethanolic extract shows a
significant immunostimulatory action on T lymphocytes (90% lymphocyte
proliferation).
55
Similarly, a human clinical study in a 50 year-old diabetic was
evaluated for prevention/treatment of autoimmune diabetes. The study found
that the supplementation of the extract at a dosage of 400 mg for 8.5 weeks did
not show any significant improvement in the clinical biomarkers.
56
A study
involving a standardized Boswellia extract containing 6–44 mgml
1
boswellic
acid and lupeolic acid exhibited inhibition of growth of cancer xenografts in vivo
and released pro-inflammatory cytokines.
57
A standardized extract containing
AKBA from B. carterii inhibited proliferation, degranulation capacity and se-
cretion of inflammatory mediators of physiologically relevant anti-CD
3
and anti-
CD
28
activated human T lymphocytes in a non-toxic concentration range and
exhibited immuno-modulatory activity.
58
4.7.6 Antithrombotic
The Ayurveda medicine records have highlighted the potential of haemo-
static, anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular effects.
59
Kokkiripati et al.
60
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studied the antioxidative and antithrombotic properties of stem bark gum
resin extracts of B. serrata. This study investigated water and hydro-alcoholic
extracts of B. serrata (7.8 and 9% w/w AKBA) on FeCl
3
-induced lipid perox-
idation (in vitro) in rat liver and heart homogenates, H
2
O
2
-mediated reactive
oxygen species (ROS) generation in THP-1 cells, and adenosine diphosphate
(ADP)-induced platelet aggregation, plasma coagulation time and human
blood-clotting factors Xa and XIa. The study results indicated that both ex-
tracts inhibited lipid peroxidation in liver (80%) and heart (50%) tissue
homogenates in male Wistar rats.
60
4.7.7 Skin Disorders
The phytochemical constituents in the essential oil fraction and the non-
resinous fraction were cited in different literatures for their effects on skin
disorders. A topical administration route is currently used to deliver active
compounds in psoriatic and eczematous patients. In a double-blind study,
a topical administration route was employed to administer Boswellia resin.
Thesubjectswererandomlydividedintothreedifferentgroupsandsub-
jected to receive test product, V. myrtillus seed oil or placebo, and in order
to evaluate the changes of scales and erythema from diagnosis to the end
of treatment were scored in psoriatic patients, while changes in itch and
erythema were analysed for erythematous eczema patients. Psoriasis Area
Severity Index and Eczema Area and Severity Index scores were also cal-
culated. The study group showed improvement in s cales (70% of case s)
and erythema (50% of cases), without any case of worsening.
61
Another
study conducted with a topical cream containing Boswellia was applied in
15 female volunteers. In this double-blinded study, topical application of
creams with or without BAs was done on half of the side of the face once
dailyfor30days.SignificantimprovementsoftheDover’sglobalscorefor
photo-aging, tactile roughness and fine lines, as well as with noninvasive
diagnostic techniques, an increase in elasticity, a decrease of sebum ex-
cretion and a change in echo-graphic parameters were observed in subjects
supplemented with the study protocol compared to the placebo, thereby
showing the supremacy of the extract in skin disorders (Calzavara-
Pinton).
62
4.7.8 Antidiarrhoeal
Various studies have shown the use of Boswellia and its role in antidiar-
rhoeal activity. In one study, the effectofgumresinextractsonintestinal
motility and diarrhoea in rodents was evaluated. The isolated extract
depressed electrically, acetylcholine- and barium chloride-induced con-
tractions in the isolated guinea-pig ileum, and showed a considerable
effect in inhibiting the contractions induced by acetylcholine and barium
chloride.
63
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4.7.9 Hepatoprotective Activity
Diseases like jaundice, cirrhosis and fatty liver are the most common types
of liver diseases. There are many factors which contribute to liver diseases,
one of the main ones being alcoholism. In ancient scripts like Vedas, the
liver is named as ‘‘Takima’’ or ‘‘Yakna’’ and other synonyms are Kalakhanda,
Jyotisthana, Yakritkhanda, Yakritpinda, Raktadhara and Raktashaya. The
liver can be referred to as Yakrit as per Ayurvedic classics. Most modern
medicines also describe different sorts of liver diseases and their correlation
with Ayurvedic practices are described in Table 4.4. Many studies have
highlighted the potential use of boswellic acids and their role in hepato-
protection. Jyoti et al. reported that the hexane extract of B. serrata showed
good hepatoprotective activity in relatively lower doses (87.5 mg kg
1
p.o.)
and the effect was comparable to that of Silymarin, the standard drug used
for hepatoprotective disorders.
64
Similarly, Odeghe and co-workers reported
that the methanolic leaf extract of Boswellia dalzielii Hutch exerted hepato-
protective action against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in
rats.
65
The bark extract of Bosw ellia ovalifoliolata was also studied for its
potential role in paracetamol (PCM)-induced hepatotoxicity. This study
found that it mitigated hepatic damage induced by acute intoxication of
PCM marking a significant protective effect against lipid peroxidation, de-
viated serum enzymatic variables and maintained glutathione status toward
control.
66
4.7.10 Neuroprotective Effects
The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of Boswellia account for its
usage as a neuroprotective aid. The non-phenolic fraction of ether extract of
Boswellia was found to exhibit sedative and analgesic effects in albino rats.
The phytochemical analysis has established that incensole acetate isolated
from the gum resin exerted anxiolytic and antidepressive effects, as well as a
sedative effect; these findings suggest the role of Boswellia in neuroprotection.
The influences of B. serrata resin extract on motor dysfunction and oxidative
Table 4.4 Correlation of liver disorders in Ayurveda and modern medicine.
Ayurvedic description Modern medicine
Vataja Yakrit Vridhi Steatohepatitis
Kaphaja Yakrit Vridhi Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
Pittaj Yakrit Vridhi Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
Amaja Yakritvridhi Metabolic hepatitis
Asatmyaja Yakrit Vridhi Autoimmune hepatitis
Krimija Yakrit Vridhi Infective hepatitis
KaphajaYakrit Kshyaya Cirrhosis liver
Pittaj Yakrit Kshyaya Hepatic cirrhosis
Madhyaja Yakrit Kshyaya Alcoholic cirrhosis
Krimija Yakrit Kshyaya Infective cirrhosis
Visaja Yakrit Kshyaya Drug-induced cirrhosis
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stress markers were investigated in the intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-
OHDA) model of Parkinson disease. The study used the ethanolic extract at
dosages of 125, 250 and 500 mgkg
1
for 3 weeks and reference drug neuro-
toxin 6-OHDA at a dosage of 12.5 mg. The behavioural assessments were done
by rotational and elevated narrow beam tests and it was found that the ex-
tracts showed a dose-independent activity in the latency and total time.
67
Riazi
and coworkers studied the effect of amino acid derivatives of bBA and AKBA
on the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and have found that coupling
with AKBA and bBA with valine and leucine amino acids can have positive
impacts on strengthening and maintaining AChE levels.
68
Multiple preclinical
studies have evaluated and proposed different mechanisms for the neuro-
protective activities of the extract. Supplementation of Boswellia extract at
dosages of 68.75 mg and 137.5 mg for a duration of 3 months showed a
significant increase in brain ACh, and a significant decrease in brain and
serum AChE activity, C-reactive protein, nuclear factor kappa (NF-kB), mem-
brane cofactor protein (MCP-1), leukotriene B4 (LTB4), Bcl-2 and Ab plaque
burden in hippocampus and striatum. The anti-inflammatory action of the
Boswellia extract illustrated that Boswellia acts in the hypothalamus and re-
duces tumour necrosis factor (TNF-a) levels, lowering PGE2 levels by inhib-
ition of mPGES1, inhibition of cathepsin G and 5-LOX activity, reduction in
the brain neurotransmitter levels, and reduction of various inflammatory
biomarkers like interleukins IL-1b,IL-6,etc.
69
4.8 Conclusion
The use of Shallaki/Boswellia is described in many traditional systems of
medicine and also in most modern nutraceutical industries throughout the
world. The major bioactive components responsible for these pharmacological
activities include boswellic acids, of which the main ones are keto beta boswellic
acid and acetyl keto beta boswellic acid. Boswellia is used as single herb or in a
polyherbal formulation. Most of the pharmacological activities accounted for in
Boswellia are attributed to the reduction of inflammatory biomarkers.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully thank the management of Plant Lipids Private Lim-
ited, Cochin, India, for their support and encouragement. they also wish to
express their appreciation to their laboratory members for their active help
and cooperation.
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CHAPTER 5
Phytochemical, Botanical and
Therapeutic Potential of
Withania somnifera in Ayurveda
S. SUBASINI, P. ANANTHI, K. HEMKUMAR AND ANITHA PIUS*
Department of Chemistry, The Gandhigram Rural Institute – Deemed to
be University, Gandhigram, Dindigul – 624302, Tamil Nadu, India
*Email: dranit hapius@gmail.com
5.1 Introduction
Ayurveda is a 3000 year-old Indian healthcare system. It is a good system of
primary healthcare in preventive and curative medicine that has been
broadly accepted in many countries in Asia, having emerged in India.
Dhanvantari, a physician, attributes Ayurveda to the Gods in Hindu myth-
ology. Its early conceptions were laid down in the Atharvaveda chapter of
the Vedas. The Caraka-Samhita and Susruta-Samhita, credited to Caraka, a
physician, and Susruta, a surgeon, highligh ted the golden era of Indian
medicine (800 BCE–1000 CE). A schematic illustration of Ayurvedic com-
ponents is shown in Figure 5.1. In many regions of the world, wherein
Ayurveda is used completely or combined with contempor ary medicine,
it remains a widespread system of health treatment. Many Ayurveda prac-
titioners engage in rural regions, treating at least 300 million people in India
alone; as an analogy, Ayurveda is a significant force in primary healthcare
training and deployment.
1
Winter cherry, W. somnifera, popularly called Ashwagandha, Indian gin-
seng, and poison gooseberry, is an annual evergreen shrub in the family
Chemistry, Biological Activities and Therapeutic Applications of Medicinal Plants in Ayurveda
Edited by Augustine Amalraj, Sasikumar Kuttappan and Karthik Varma A. C.
r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2023
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
89
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Solanaceae that grows in the Middle East, India, and some regions of Africa.
This small, frail perennial shrub grows to between 14 and 30 inches tall. The
leaves are dull green and elliptic, measuring 3.9–4.7 inches long on average.
The ripe fruit is orange-red and the flowers are tiny, green, and bell-shaped.
‘‘Somnifera’’ is a Latin term meaning ‘‘to induce sleep.’’ The word ‘‘ashwa-
gandha’’ was formed as a result of the Sanskrit words ‘‘ashwa’’ (horse) and
‘‘gandha’’ (smell), indicating that the root seems to have a strong horse-like
stench. W. somnifera is prone to several pests and diseases.
2
Traditionally, Korean ginseng plays a vital role in Chinese medicine,
similar to that of W. somnifera which also has a role in Ayurvedic tradition, so
it is commonly called Indian ginseng. Ashwagandha has been widely used as
an astringent, anticarbuncle, antistress, tonic, narcotic, and diuretic, and
has been used in the treatment of worms, piles, goiter, leucoderma,
neurological breakdown, sleeplessness, and constipation in Ayurveda, where
it is known as the ‘‘Sattvic Kapha Rasayana’’. The root, leaves, and flowers
have been used to treat fevers and inflammations, the flowers are often used
as antibiotic ointments and diuretics, the fruits have been used to treat skin
sores, tumors, and carbuncles, and the seeds have been shown to stimulate
sperm count.
3
Ashwagandha is usually consumed as churna, a finely sieved
powder blended with water, ghee (clarified butter), or honey. It boosts brain
and nervous system function. It stimulates the function of the reproductive
system, maintaining a healthy sexual and reproductive balance. As a re-
nowned adaptogen, it improves the body’s drought resistance. By boosting
cell-mediated immunity, Ashwagandha helps the body resist illness. It also
Figure 5.1 Schematic representation of Ayurveda ingredients.
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has significant antioxidant capabilities that protect cells from free radical
damage. This chapter covers the potential of numerous phytochemicals,
botanicals, and therapeutics of W. somn ifera in Ayurveda.
5.2 Taxonomical classification
Kingdom: Plantae, Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta, Vascular plants
Super division: Spermatophyta, Seeds plants
Division: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledons
Order: Tubiflorae
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Withania
Species: Somnifera dunal
5.3 Distribution
W. somnifera is recognized by a variety of names, including Asgandh in
Hindi, winter cherry in English, Gandha in Turangi, Aswagandha in Bengali,
Ghodakun and Ghoda in Gujarati, Vajigandha and Pulivendram in Telgu,
Vajigandha and Pulivendram in Tamil, Amukkira in Kannada, and Vir-
emaddlinagadde in Goa. This plant flourishes in all of subtropical India’s
drier regions, such as Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, the Punjab plains,
and the northwestern states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The distribution map
in Figure 5.2 shows that it may also be found in Congo, South Africa, Egypt,
Morocco, Jordan, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and elsewhere. When dried, the
fleshy roots are cylindrical, tapering down gradually with a brownish white
exterior and a pure white interior when broken. The major parts of the plant
employed as a medicinal agent are the roots. The simple, ovate, glabrous
Figure 5.2 Distribution of W. somnifera throughout the world.
Phytochemical, Botanical and Therapeutic Potential of Withania somnifera in Ayurveda 91
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