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Placenta
pulled away
from uterus
(A)
Uterus
Cervix
(C)
Placenta positioned
over cervical
opening
Figure 17-22 (A) Normal uterine pregnancy, (B) abruptio placentae, and (C) placenta previa.
Umbilical cord
Placenta
(B)
Cervix and
cervical os (opening)
Vagina
if the bleeding is severe. Placenta previa can be life
threatening to the mother due to hemorrhaging and to
the baby due to anoxia.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made by pelvic ultrasound.
■ Treatment. Vaginal delivery might be possible if the
mother is asymptomatic or if bleeding is not severe.
Severe maternal bleeding or fetal anoxia is reason to
perform an emergency C-section.
■ Prevention. Because the cause is unknown, preven
tion is not possible.
Male Reproductive System Diseases
The most common diseases affecting the male repro
ductive system include infection and diseases affect
ing the prostate. The positional relationship of the
male urinary bladder and the prostate causes the male
to experience urinary symptoms when the prostate is
affected with disease.
Prostatitis
■ Description. Prostatitis (PROS-tah-TYE-tis; prost =
prostate, itis = inflammation) is inflammation of the
prostate gland. This condition is more common in men
over 50 years of age.
■ Etiology. Cause can be unknown or the result of a
urinary tract infection or infection by STDs.
■ Symptoms. Symptoms include dysuria (dis-YOU-
ree-ah; dys = painful, uria = urine), pyuria (pye-YOU-
ree-ah; py = pus, uria = urine), fever, and low back
pain.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of a urinal
ysis, urine culture, and digital rectal examination.
388 Chapter 17
Supplements for
Men’s Health
Complementary and Alternative Therapy
T
here are hundreds of supplements that can be found in the marketplace today. Many
are specific for certain health problems while others are just sold for maintenance
of general good health. The following are some supplements that have been studied for
their effects on men’s health but some have not been shown to be effective.
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Choline. This helps prevent liver and some pancreatic disorders, and improves brain
function.
Magnesium. This is called “the brain food” because it improves moods and fights
headaches. It also prevents some types of cramps.
Nitrates. These help increase blood flow to tissues; thus, increasing oxygen and glu
cose deliver to the muscles and organs. This might help increase energy and build
muscle.
Vitamin B12. This increases red blood cell building. Red blood cells carry oxygen
throughout the body via the hemoglobin. It also helps the neurotransmission system
function better.
Vitamin D. This helps improve moods and also is a deterrent to some cancers, heart
disease, and diabetes.
Vitamin K. This is important in the blood clotting system and prevents calcium
buildup in vessels.
Zinc. This enhances the healing process and deters viruses.
These supplements can be found in a variety of foods or purchased in a health foods
section of a pharmacy or grocery store. The user should be careful because safe dosages
have not been established by scientific research for many of them. However, no supple
ment has been demonstrated to be effective for erectile dysfunction or prostate hyper
plasia treatment, although some do promote that in the advertisements.
Source: NIH: National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (2019)
■ Treatment. Treatment depends on cause but often
includes antibiotic therapy with penicillin. Warm sitz
baths, increased fluid intake, and analgesics also can be
prescribed. Prognosis is good because prostatitis usually
responds well to treatment.
■ Prevention. Preventive activities include not smok
ing, drinking plenty of fluids, seeking early treatment
for urinary symptoms, and practicing good hygiene by
keeping the penis clean. This takes extra effort in an
uncircumcised male.
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
■ Description. Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is
also called benign prostatic hypertrophy, the enlarge
ment of the prostate due to normal cells overgrowing
and enlarging (Figure 17-23). BPH is the most com
mon prostate problem in men over 50. Approximately
50% of males over age 50 have some degree of prostate
enlargement.
■ Etiology. The cause of BPH is unknown, but it is
thought to be due to hormonal changes, including alter
ations in testosterone, estrogen, and androgen levels
associated with aging.
■ Symptoms. The enlargement of the prostate places
pressure on the bladder and prostatic urethra, causing
urinary obstruction and a variety of urinary symp
toms. The primary symptoms of BPH are nocturia
(nock-TOO-ree-ah; noct = night, uria = urine), or
frequently getting up at night to void; inability to start
urination; a weak urinary stream; and inability to
empty the bladder. The inability to empty the bladder
often causes the excess urine to fill the ureters, leading
to hydroureter, hydronephrosis, and frequent urinary
tract infections.
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Reproductive System Diseases and Disorders 389
Seminal vesicle
Rectum
Ejaculatory duct
Cowper’s glands
Epididymis—
Testis—
(A)
Vas deferens
Urinary bladder
Prostate gland
Urethra
Glans penis
Prepuce (foreskin)
Scrotum
Figure 17-23 Normal and enlarged prostate. (A) Normal. (B) Benign prostatic hypertrophy or hyperplasia (enlarged).
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of symp
toms and digital rectal examination revealing an
enlarged prostate.
■ Treatment. Treatment is symptomatic and might
include prostatic massage, sitz baths, and catheter
izations. Regular sexual intercourse can be helpful
in reducing prostatic congestion. Surgery to resect
or decrease the size of the prostate is one common
treatment. This procedure is called a transurethral
(trans = through, urethral = urethra) resection
of the prostate (TURP). This procedure is per
formed, as the name indicates, through the urethra.
No surgical incision is needed. During a TURP, the
surgeon uses a cystoscope to chisel away the excess
prostate tissue causing the urinary obstruction
(Figure 17-24).
Resectoscope
Bladder
Enlarged prostate
_ Cut pieces of
prostatic tissue
Rectum
Figure 17-24 Transurethral resection of prostate (TURP).
390 Chapter 17
Apitherapy for
Benign Prostatic
Hyperplasia (BPH)
Complementary and Alternative Therapy
A
pitherapy is an alternative treatment that uses bee products such as bee pollen, bee
venom, propolis, and royal jelly to treat a variety of conditions. Thousands of years
ago these bee products were used to treat many health conditions including abscesses
and wounds, and was even used in embalming. This research reviewed previous studies
of the use of bee products for treating benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Although
apitherapists have claimed to be able to cure BPH with various bee products, the scien
tific evidence does not support that claim. Most of the studies have been on animals not
on humans. The researchers’ recommendation was to continue to investigate the use
of bee products for treatment of BPH before any further support for the apitherapists
claims is given.
Source: Munstedt & Mannle (2020)
■ Prevention. There are no known preventive measures
for BPH. An annual prostate exam is recommended for
males after age 40. Some people believe that regular
ejaculation will help prevent prostate enlargement, but
there is no scientific proof of this belief.
Prostatic Carcinoma
■ Description. Prostatic carcinoma is a neoplasm of the
prostate gland that commonly affects men after age 50.
It is the second most common cause of cancer-related
death in men; lung cancer is first.
■ Etiology. The cause of this cancer is unknown,
although some believe that testosterone levels are
involved. Diets high in fat are also believed to be asso
ciated with an increase in prostate cancer. It is known
that incidence does increase with age.
This adenocarcinoma grows in the outer layer of
the prostate and often does not cause symptoms until
it has metastasized. Common sites of metastasis include
the bones of the spine and pelvis.
■ Symptoms. Symptoms, when present, are similar to
BPH as the urethra becomes obstructed.
■ Diagnosis. Digital rectal examination will reveal a
hard, abnormal mass. A blood test measuring PSA will
be elevated with prostatic cancer. A serum PSA test result
of 2.0 to 5.5 might be within the normal range, depend
ing on the patient’s age. Biopsy is the definitive test.
■ Treatment. Treatment depends on the age and phys
ical condition of the affected individual and the degree
of metastasis. If the tumor has not metastasized, com
plete removal and cure can be accomplished with a
prostatectomy. If metastasis has occurred, treatment
might involve hormone therapy to slow the growth of
the neoplasm. Hormone therapy might include:
■ Administration of estrogen to counteract testosterone.
■ Surgical orchiectomy (OR-kee-ECK-toh-me; orchi =
testicle, ectomy = removal), removal of the testicles
to halt testosterone production.
■ A combination of both treatments.
Much controversy exists over the benefits of hor
mone therapy. Many urologists do not believe an
orchiectomy improves the survival rate of the affected
individual. Chemotherapy and radiation treatments
also might be beneficial treatments.
The prognosis of prostatic carcinoma varies, depend
ing on the age of the affected individual and the degree of
spread. This is usually a very slow growing cancer. If the
individual is older than 65 years of age, he will probably
outlive the cancer and die of some other disease process.
Younger individuals and those with extensive metastasis
do not have as positive a prognosis. Overall, 50% to 75%
of affected individuals live five years or more.
■ Prevention. There are no preventive measures,
although getting an annual prostate examination is rec
ommended for early detection.
Epididymitis
■ Description. Epididymitis (EP-ih-did-ih-MY-tis;
epididym = epididymis, itis = inflammation) is inflam
mation of the epididymis.
■ Etiology. Common causes include prostatitis, urinary
tract infection, mumps, and STDs such as chlamydia,
syphilis, and gonorrhea. Epididymitis is one of the most
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Reproductive System Diseases and Disorders 391
common diseases of the male reproductive tract and
usually affects only one epididymis (unilateral).
■ Symptoms. Symptoms include a swollen, hard, and
painful epididymis, often accompanied by severe scrotal
pain and swelling. Scrotal discomfort makes walking dif
ficult, and the affected individual might walk straddle
legged to protect the scrotum.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of symp
toms, urinalysis, and urine culture.
■ Treatment. Prompt, appropriate antibiotic therapy
is usually very effective. A delay in treatment can lead
to complications of scarring and sterility (inability to
impregnate a female, related to sperm quality or quan
tity). Other treatment includes bed rest, analgesics, use
of a scrotal support, and avoidance of alcohol, spicy
foods, and sexual stimulation.
■ Prevention. Prevention is aimed at cause and includes
sexual abstinence, or use of condoms during sexual
intercourse to decrease the risk of infection with STDs,
and prompt treatment of causative infections.
Orchitis
■ Description. Orchitis (or-KYE-tis; orch = testis, itis =
inflammation) is inflammation of one or both testes,
usually due to bacterial or viral infection or trauma
(Figure 17-25).
■ Etiology. Viral mumps is the most common cause
of orchitis in the adult male. Commonly, orchitis
occurs in conjunction with or as a complication of
epididymitis.
Figure 17-25 Orchitis.
■ Symptoms. Symptoms include swelling, pain and ten
derness of one or both testes, fever, and malaise.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of symp
toms, blood testing, and urinalysis.
■ Treatment. Treatment depends on cause. If the cause
is bacterial, antibiotic therapy is usually effective. Orchi
tis caused by mumps is treated symptomatically and
includes bed rest and analgesic and antipyretic medi
cations. A scrotal support might be helpful. Prognosis
is good, although atrophy of the involved testicle does
occur 50% of the time. If both testes are involved, ste
rility can occur.
■ Prevention. Prevention is aimed at causative factors
and includes mumps vaccination and prevention of
infection from STDs.
Testicular Tumors
■ Description. Testicular tumors commonly affect
young males aged 20 to 35 and are the most common
type of cancer for this age group. Testicular tumors
rarely occur in males over age 40.
■ Etiology. The cause of this cancer is unknown, but
predisposing factors include individuals who have
been affected by cryptorchidism (krip-TOR-kih-dizm;
crypt = hidden, orchid = testicle, ism = condition), or
undescended testicle, and an inguinal hernia as a child.
Cryptorchidism is considered the main risk factor in
developing testicular tumors.
■ Symptoms. The primary symptom of a testicular
tumor is a painless mass felt in the testicle.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of palpa
tion of a testicular mass with confirmation by biopsy.
■ Treatment. Treatment commonly includes surgery
(orchiectomy), followed by chemotherapy and radia
tion. Because there is no direct lymphatic connection
between the testes, testicular tumors do not usually
spread from one testicle to the other. Surgical removal
of the affected testis is often the treatment of choice.
This procedure leaves the unaffected testis, and the male
is not rendered sterile or impotent (unable to achieve
or maintain a penile erection).
Metastatic testicular cancers can be treated with
radical surgery involving removal of both testes and
adjacent lymph nodes. This surgery might or might not
affect impotency, but it will cause sterility. Males wish
ing to father children might elect to bank sperm prior
to surgery so they can father children at a later date by
artificial insemination. If discovered early, prognosis of
392 Chapter 17
testicular tumor is good, with an approximately 90%
cure rate. If metastasis has occurred, the prognosis
is poor.
■ Prevention. There are no preventive measures for
testicular cancer because most of the risk factors are
unavoidable, such as age, race, and conditions occurring
at birth. The best method of controlling spread of the
disease is to discover the tumors prior to metastasis; the
American Cancer Society (ACS) recommends a testicu
lar exam as part of a routine annual checkup.
Cryptorchidism
■ Description. Cryptorchidism is a condition com
monly referred to as an undescended testicle. As the
unborn male fetus develops, the testes appear first in
the abdominal cavity. As the fetus grows and develops,
the testes should move downward through the inguinal
canal and into the scrotum.
■ Etiology. If this process does not occur properly,
the testes might become lodged in any position in the
abdominal cavity (Figure 17-26). Premature birth
is a common cause of cryptorchidism and is usually
time limited. The failure of both testes to descend is
uncommon.
■ Symptoms. Primary symptom is an undescended
testis.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of physical
examination noting an undescended testis.
■ Treatment. If a testis remains undescended into
childhood, surgical intervention (orchiopexy) is neces
sary to move and secure the testis in the scrotum. It is
unclear as to the best time to perform this surgery, but
most experts recommend it be performed soon after
the first birthday. If the testis is left in the abdominal
cavity, it will not function properly, but this will not
affect potency or sterility because one testis can main
tain adequate male hormone levels. If both testes are
undescended, the male will be sterile. Men who have
an undescended testicle at birth are at increased risk of
developing testicular cancer in both testes.
■ Prevention. There is no way to prevent this condition
because the cause is still unknown.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
STDs, formerly called venereal diseases, include a group
of many diseases that are spread by intimate or sexual
contact. The spread of STD is at an epidemic level in
the United States. These infections are transmitted from
one person to another by contact with infected skin,
blood, semen, and vaginal secretions during vaginal,
anal, and oral sex.
Treatment of STDs commonly consists of identi
fying sex partners and treating the infected individu
als concurrently to avoid reinfection, or a ping-pong
effect, of passing the infection back and forth between
involved individuals. Follow-up testing is needed after
treatment to ensure that the disease has been eradicated
in all infected individuals.
Prevention of STDs is best achieved by avoiding
intimate contact with infected individuals. Other pre
cautions include use of a condom during sexual inter
course, avoiding multiple sex partners, avoiding sex
with someone with an unknown sexual history, and
avoiding the use of alcohol that can impair judgment
concerning a sexual encounter.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a
blood-borne infection commonly transmitted sex
ually. HIV and AIDS continue to be a major health
problem in the United States and throughout the
world. No effective cure exists, but with proper medi
cal care, HIV can be controlled. For more details about
AIDS, see Chapter 5, “Immune System Diseases and
Disorders.”
CRYPTORCHIDISM
ECTOPIC
Figure 17-26 Cryptorchidism — pathway and common sites of hidden testis.
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Reproductive System Diseases and Disorders 393
Hepatitis
Hepatitis B and C can be spread by sexual intercourse
and are, therefore, considered STDs. For more informa
tion, see Chapter 12, “Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancre
atic Diseases and Disorders.”
Genital Herpes
■ Description. Genital herpes is an extremely painful,
recurring viral infection characterized by multiple,
blister-like lesions (Figure 17-27). Approximately 12% of
the U.S. population is currently infected with this virus.
New cases of the infection are estimated at an alarm
ing rate of over 572,000 each year (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2021).
■ Etiology. Genital herpes is caused by herpes simplex
virus (HSV) type 2. (Herpes viruses are discussed in
detail in Chapter 18, “Integumentary System Diseases
and Disorders.”) This is a highly contagious virus trans
mitted by intimate contact between two mucous mem
brane surfaces. HSV-2 is commonly spread by sexual
intercourse but can be spread also to the lips by oral
genital exposure or by self-infection with the hands by
touching an infected area and then touching the lips,
genitals, or eyes. Transmission of the virus with sexual
contact is more often male-to-female rather than female-
to-male. Extreme care should be taken to avoid infection
by this virus in the mucous membranes of the eyes.
Herpes disease cannot be cured. The virus remains
dormant in the tissues until activated by stress or low
ered immunity. Sunlight, fever, emotional stress, and
menses are common activators of the herpes virus.
■ Symptoms. When activated, the virus produces
blisters that enlarge, rupture, and ulcerate. The lesions
are extremely painful, especially during sexual inter
course. Severe itching and painful urination (dysuria)
are common. Genital herpes infection in the male com
monly produces blisters on the glans penis, the shaft of
the penis, scrotum, and inner thighs.
Figure 17-27 Genital herpes.
Lesions in the female commonly appear on the
vulva, vagina, inner thighs, and rectal area. Childbirth
in a female with active herpes infection is fatal to the
infant 50% of the time. If the infant survives, major neu
rologic and ophthalmic complications usually occur.
For this reason, delivery by C-section is performed in
mothers with active genital herpes.
Herpes lesions generally last between one and three
weeks but can recur weekly, monthly, or yearly.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of the pres
ence of characteristic lesions and a positive viral culture
of active lesions.
■ Treatment. Treatment is symptomatic and involves
antiviral medications to reduce symptoms. Sitz baths,
ice therapy, analgesics, and keeping the lesions clean
and dry can help with the discomfort. Females with
genital herpes should have Pap smears every 6 months
because they are eight times more likely to develop
cervical cancer.
■ Prevention. Avoid intimate contact with infected
individuals.
Gonorrhea
■ Description. Gonorrhea is one of the most common
STDs in the United States. It is a highly contagious
STD.
■ Etiology. Gonorrhea is caused by the Neisseria gon-
orrhoeae bacterium. The transmission of gonorrhea
is often difficult to control because the infected indi
vidual, either male or female, might be asymptomatic.
In this case, the infected individual is a carrier of the
infection and might unknowingly spread the infection.
Infants born to mothers with gonorrhea run the
risk of developing gonorrheal eye infection, which can
lead to blindness. To prevent infant blindness, it is a
common practice, and is state law in some instances, to
treat all newborns’ eyes with a prophylactic antibiotic
or silver nitrate drops at birth.
■ Symptoms. This bacterial infection causes inflamma
tion of mucous membranes of the genital and urinary
systems in both males and females. In males, symptoms
include urethritis with purulent discharge from the
penis, dysuria, and urinary frequency. Females com
monly show signs of cervicitis with purulent vaginal
discharge, dysuria, urinary frequency, genital itching,
and a burning pain.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis of gonorrhea may be made on the
basis of a culture of secretions or using a DNA probe test.
394 Chapter 17
Healthy Highlight
Preventing Sexually
Transmitted
Infections: Practice
Safe Sex
P
reventing a sexually transmitted infection (STI) is easier than treating the infection
once it occurs. Abstaining from sexual intercourse is the best preventive method to
avoid being exposed to STIs. However, if individuals choose to be sexually active, here
are some preventive strategies:
■
■
Talk with your partner about STIs before beginning a sexual relationship. Find out
whether he or she is at risk for an STI. Remember that it is quite possible to be infected
with an STI without knowing it. Also discuss how alcohol or drug use can impair
judgment during a sexual encounter.
Always be responsible by:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Avoiding sexual contact or activity if you have symptoms of an STI or are being
treated for an STI.
Avoiding sexual contact or activity with anyone who has symptoms of an STI or
who may have been exposed to an STI.
Avoiding sharing towels or underwear.
Washing before and after sexual intercourse.
Being vaccinated for hepatitis B.
Using PrEP (preexposure prophylaxis) which is a medicine for those at risk for
HIV.
Being tested for STIs, especially if there are multiple partners or condoms have
not been used.
Remember some STIs can also be spread through oral-to-genital or genital-to-anal
sexual contact.
Only having one sex partner at a time.
Using latex condoms with every sexual encounter. If a lubricant is used, be sure it
is water-based.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2020)
■ Treatment. Treatment with antibiotics, including
penicillin, tetracycline, and ceftriaxone, is usually effec
tive. Untreated gonorrhea can lead to life-threatening
systemic infections such as meningitis and endocardi
tis. Arthritis and sterility are also common in both the
untreated male and female.
■ Prevention. Avoid intimate contact with infected
individuals.
Syphilis
■ Description. Syphilis is a serious STD. If untreated, it
has a much worse outcome than gonorrhea because it
can become a chronic, life-threatening disease.
■ Etiology. Syphilis is caused by the Treponema pall
idum bacterium (Figure 17-28). It is spread by sexual
or intimate contact with contagious lesions. As soon
as exposure occurs, these bacteria rapidly penetrate
the skin or mucous membrane and gain access to the
vascular system, producing a systemic infection.
■ Symptoms. Syphilis progresses through three dis
tinct stages with characteristic signs and symptoms. The
stages are primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Primary
■ Symptoms. This stage is marked by the appear
ance of a painless, highly contagious lesion called a
chancre (SHANG-ker) (Figure 17-29) that occurs at
the site of bacterial entry and usually appears sev
eral weeks after contact. It can vary in appearance
from pimple-like to an ulcerated sore. In the male,
the chancre usually appears on the head of the penis.
In the female, the chancre commonly appears on
the vulva, although it can be hidden inside the vagi
nal cavity and, thus, go unnoticed. The chancre can
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Reproductive System Diseases and Disorders 395
appear also at other sites in both sexes, including
on the lips, fingers, anus, and tongue. Even without
treatment, the chancre commonly disappears in 10 to
30 days, often leading to the false conclusion that the
disease is cured. Lymphadenopathy, or sore swollen
lymph nodes, is common.
■ Treatment. The disease is highly contagious during
this stage but is easily cured with antibiotic therapy.
Secondary
■ Description. After the chancre heals, a period of rest
occurs that can last from six weeks to one year.
■ Symptoms. During this time, the bacteria rest and
then rapidly grow and multiply, causing the characteris
tic rash of secondary syphilis (Figure 17-30). This rash
can appear in any area of the body such as on the palms,
the soles of the feet, and in the mouth, or it can spread
Figure 17-28 Treponema pallidum.
Figure 17-29 Syphilis chancre. (A) Chancre—tongue.
(B) Chancre—penis.
(B)
Figure 17-30 Syphilis rash—secondary. (A) Syphilis
rash—tongue. (B) Syphilis rash—back.
Courtesy of Mark L. Kuss Courtesy of Mark L. Kuss
396 Chapter 17
over the entire body. The rash does not itch and might
be erroneously diagnosed as mumps, chicken pox, or
ringworm. The individual is highly contagious during
this stage. If mouth sores are present, kissing can spread
the disease.
■ Treatment. During this stage, it can be easily diag
nosed based on a blood test and easily treated with
antibiotics.
The primary and secondary stages are often com
bined and called early syphilis.
Tertiary (Late or Latent)
■ Description. If secondary syphilis is untreated, the
bacterial organisms withdraw into single or multiple
sites in the body and become dormant. The length of
this period of dormancy ranges from 1 to 20 years.
During this time, the infected individual can be unaware
of the infection. Blood testing even might show negative
results. The disease at this time is less contagious to oth
ers but is dangerous for the infected individual.
■ Symptoms. Bacteria invade organs throughout the
body, producing a characteristic soft gummy lesion
called gumma (GUM-mah) (Figure 17-31). Symp
toms vary, depending on the organs attacked. Com
mon problems include aortic aneurysm, heart failure,
mental disorders, insanity, deafness, blindness, paral
ysis, and death.
■ Treatment. Tertiary syphilis can be cured with
antibiotic treatment, but the effects of the lesions are
irreversible.
Syphilis in pregnant females can cause spontaneous
abortion or death of the infant. Infants that survive
commonly have numerous defects, including physical
and mental deformities, blindness, and deafness. Preg
nant females should be tested for syphilis early because
Figure 17-31 Tertiary—gumma.
syphilis can be cured with antibiotic treatment during
the first five months of pregnancy, thus preventing
infection in the unborn child.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of blood
tests, VDRL, and RPR.
■ Prevention. Avoid intimate contact with infected
individuals.
Chlamydia Infection
■ Description. Chlamydia infection is very common in
the United States and is one of the most damaging of the
STDs. It is often called the silent STD because infected
individuals can be asymptomatic until dangerous com
plications occur. Chlamydia infection is the leading
cause of PID and is a major cause of female infertility.
■ Etiology. Chlamydia infection is due to the Chla
mydia trachomatis bacterium (Figure 17-32).
■ Symptoms. Males with chlamydia infection are usu
ally symptomatic with drainage from the penis, burning
and itching with urination due to urethritis, and epididy
mitis. Symptomatic females experience vaginal drainage
with burning and itching of the genital area. Abdominal
pain and dyspareunia can be indicative of PID.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made on the basis of cyto
logic (microscopic examination of cells) examination
for the bacteria, culture, and DNA probe test.
■ Treatment. Treatment with antibiotic therapy is effec
tive. Prognosis is good if treatment occurs prior to the
onset of complications. Untreated males can suffer with
severe epididymitis, causing sterility.
Figure 17-32 Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria.
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