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Immune System Diseases and Disorders 67
Common Drugs for Immune Disorders (continued)
Category Examples of Medications
Antivirals
Drugs used to stop the
action of the virus
Acyclovir, imiquimod, or cidofovir
Biologics
Drugs produced from
living organisms or
contain components of
living organisms
Baricitinib, secukinumab, or tofacitinib
Bronchodilators
Drugs used to improve
breathing
Albuterol, aminophylline, epinephrine, theophylline,
or salmeterol
Immunosuppressants
Drugs that suppress or
weaken the immune
system; often used to
prevent rejection in
patients with transplants
Azathioprine, cyclosporine, mycophenolate acid, or
prednisone
Consider This...
5
Stress hormones, cortisol and epinephrine,
which suppress the body’s immune system,
will actually decrease after a good dose of
laughter.
Hypersensitivity Disorders
Hypersensitivity disorders are the result of an overre
action of the immune system to an antigen or allergen.
Hypersensitivity disorders can be further classified as
those related to allergy, autoimmunity, and isoimmu
nity (Figure 5-2).
Allergies
■ Description. Allergies are among the most prevalent
types of hypersensitivity problems. Millions of people
suffer from some type of allergy. Hay fever, asthma
(AZ-ma), urticaria (UR-tih-KAR-ree-ah; a reaction
characterized by intense wheals and itching), and con
tact dermatitis are common allergic reactions. These
reactions are usually just bothersome, but they can
be a serious health threat. Severe asthma, for exam
ple, may be life-threatening. Food allergies are also
common in some populations but may be difficult to
diagnose.
■ Etiology. Allergy is an acquired hypersensitivity.
The individual with an allergy must first be exposed
or sensitized to the antigen. Subsequent or repeated
exposure leads to a reaction, identified as an allergy
or an allergic reaction, by the immune system. Aller
gens can cause an immediate response like those
identified with hay fever, asthma, or food allergy.
Delayed-response allergies are slower to react and are
usually less harmful. An example of delayed response
allergy would be contact dermatitis, caused by expo
sure to poison ivy.
■ Symptoms. Most allergens are airborne. Respiratory
symptoms can include runny nose, coughing, sneezing,
wheezing, and nasal congestion. Other allergies can lead
to redness, heat, swelling, and itching of the involved
tissue.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis of allergies is often made based
on a history and a physical exam along with testing. Pos
itive skin sensitivity testing and blood testing, including
ALL IMMUNE DISEASES
Environmental or
acquired antigens
Hay fever
Asthma
Poison ivy
Immune Deficiency
Underreaction to Antigen
Hypersensitivity
Overreaction to Antigen
AIDS
Self-antigens
Hypersensitivity to
another’s antigen
Rheumatic fever
Systemic lupus
Rheumatoid arthritis
Blood transfusion
reaction
Tissue graft rejection
Rh blood reaction
Figure 5-2 Classification of hypersensitivity disorders.
Allergy
Autoimmunity
Isoimmunity
an elevated blood eosinophil (a white blood cell that
responds in allergic conditions) level, are indicative of
allergies.
■ Treatment. Treatments include avoidance of the aller
gen, allergy desensitization injections, and antihista
mine and steroid medications.
■ Prevention. Prevention of all hypersensitivity disorders
is total avoidance of the allergen or, in the case of autoim
mune diseases, minimizing the hyperimmune symptoms.
■ Description. Hay fever is a reaction in the mucous
membranes of the nose and upper respiratory tract to
an allergen.
■ Etiology. The allergen is usually airborne and can be
seasonal. Tree pollen, grasses, agricultural crops, and
ragweed pollen can cause an increase in symptoms
during the different seasons of the year. Non-seasonal
hay fever can be the result of house dust, pet dander, or
food allergies.
■ Symptoms. Symptoms include sneezing, watery eyes,
runny nose, and itching.
■ Diagnosis. Skin testing is the most common method
of allergy testing for hay fever.
■ Treatment. The treatment of hay fever includes
removal of the allergen or separation of the allergen
and the hay fever sufferer. Individuals who suffer from
hay fever can choose to move permanently to a differ
ent climate or to vacation in a different area when the
pollen count is high in their area. An air-conditioned
environment is beneficial because it filters much of the
allergen. Antihistamines and other drugs can be given
orally—and in nose drops and sprays—in an effort to
control symptoms. Allergy desensitization might be
of benefit.
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Immune System Diseases and Disorders 69
Consider This...
Dust Allergies and Dust Mites
Approximately 37 million Americans suffer
from dust allergies. One piece of dust can
contain pet dander, pieces of dead cock
roaches, mold spores, dead skin flakes, and
dust mites. Dust mites are the most common
cause of an allergy from house dust.
Dust mites are microscopic relatives of
the spider family that live on mattresses,
bedding, upholstered furniture, carpet, and
curtains. They float into the air when people
perform activities such as vacuuming, walk
ing on carpet, or turning back bed cover
ings. Although dust mites can never be totally
eliminated, the numbers can be reduced sig
nificantly by following these guidelines:
■ If possible, replace carpet with a solid
surface flooring such as linoleum, wood,
or tile.
■ Clean with a vacuum with a HEPA filter.
■ Use “mite-proof” cases on your mat
tresses and pillows.
■ Wash all bedding and blankets once a
week in hot water (130-140 degrees
Fahrenheit).
■ Wrap nonwashable items such as stuffed
pillows or toys in plastic bags and freeze
overnight.
■ Use a damp mop or cloth to remove
dust. Never use a dry cloth or duster; this
just stirs up mite allergens.
Asthma
■ Description. This chronic allergic condition is
also known as bronchial asthma. It affects 5% to
10% of children, making it the leading cause of chronic
illness in childhood. Male children have asthma twice
as often as girls prior to puberty. After puberty, the ratio
is more equal. Approximately 25 million adults have
asthma. Adult women have asthma approximately twice
as often as adult males.
■ Etiology. When exposed to an allergen, the hyper
sensitive individual has episodes of wheezing due to
bronchospasm (BRONG-ko-SPA-zm) or muscular
constriction of the bronchi of the respiratory tract. The
individual appears perfectly normal between episodes.
Asthma can be caused by allergens in the environ
ment, such as pollen, dust, pet dander, smoke, or vari
ous fumes. Other causes of asthma are non-allergic and
include events that produce stress. Triggers for non-
allergic asthma include respiratory infections such as
the common cold, changes in temperature and humid
ity, exercise, and emotional stress.
■ Symptoms. Symptoms of an attack are extreme
shortness of breath, difficulty breathing, wheezing, and
anxiety. Attacks vary in severity from mild to almost
suffocating. Coughing during the attack usually begins
with a mild, dry cough but progresses to the produc
tion of large amounts of mucus as the attack continues.
A person’s skin might be pale and moist in mild attacks,
with cyanosis of the nail beds and lips occurring in more
severe attacks. During an attack, a person with asthma
often assumes a sitting position, leaning forward with
hands resting on their knees. This position helps the
individual breathe by using all the respiratory muscles
(Figure 5-3). A severe attack that does not respond to
Figure 5-3 Positioning in an asthma attack.
70 Chapter 5
treatment with bronchodilators and/or lasts for several
days is called status asthmaticus (AZ-MAH-ti-kus)
and is a life-threatening medical emergency.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is made after a complete history
and physical exam along with lung function testing. A
trial medication might be ordered. If the medication
works, the diagnosis is probably asthma.
■ Treatment. Treatment includes avoidance of causative
allergens, desensitization, education, and medications to
treat symptoms. Deep breathing exercises, maintenance of
proper posture, and relaxation techniques are beneficial.
A regimen of medications to relax and open the bronchi
(bronchodilators) and thin the excessive mucus (muco-
lytics) is important. There is no cure for asthma, but it
can be controlled by a combination of therapies includ
ing strict compliance to a medication regimen, relaxation
techniques, exercise, and avoidance of allergens.
Urticaria
■ Description. Commonly called hives or nettle rash,
urticaria is a vascular reaction of the skin.
■ Etiology. This condition is caused by contact with an
external irritant such as insect bites, pollen, drugs, food,
or plants.
■ Symptoms. The condition is characterized by slightly
elevated lesions that are redder or paler than the sur
rounding skin and is associated with severe itching. The
elevated areas are called wheals or hives. Scratching or
rubbing the hypersensitive area can lead to the forma
tion of larger or additional wheals (Figure 5-4).
Figure 5-4 Urticaria.
■ Diagnosis. A physical examination will help diagnose
this skin reaction. A history of recent exposure to plants,
insect bites, pets, new foods, or medications might assist
in identifying the allergen.
■ Treatment. Treatment includes antihistamines and
avoiding the allergen.
Anaphylaxis
■ Description. This is a severe allergic response to an
allergen, often leading to anaphylactic shock.
■ Etiology. Anaphylaxis (AN-ah-fih-LACK-sis), also
known as an anaphylactic reaction, is caused by absorp
tion of the antigen into the blood directly or through the
mucous membranes. Food allergy is believed to be the
leading cause of anaphylaxis outside the hospital (Food
Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network, 2008). Other com
mon causes of anaphylaxis include medications, insect
stings, and latex.
■ Symptoms. A local anaphylactic reaction might be
mild and produce generalized itching, swelling, and
urticaria. This reaction should be closely monitored
because it might rapidly progress to systemic anaphy
laxis. Systemic anaphylaxis is a true medical emer
gency involving the release of histamine throughout
body tissues. Within minutes, the individual feels itch
ing of the throat, tongue, and scalp. Edema, or swelling
of the face and airways, leads to difficulty breathing.
The individual suffers a huge drop in blood pressure
(shock) and body temperature. Unconsciousness usu
ally occurs with the drop in blood pressure. If these
symptoms are not reversed with medical attention,
death from respiratory and cardiac arrest can occur
within 15 to 20 minutes.
■ Diagnosis. Symptoms of anaphylaxis generally
initiate within minutes and last less than 24 hours.
A diagnosis is made rapidly, based on the presenting
symptoms.
■ Treatment. Treatment during an attack might
include performing an emergency tracheostomy
(TRAY-kee-OS-toh-me; trache = trachea, ostomy =
new opening) or endotracheal (endo = within, tra
chea = windpipe) intubation with mechanical venti
lation. The immediate administration of epinephrine
medication is necessary. Epinephrine (adrenalin) is a
vasoconstrictor and a smooth-muscle relaxant. Effects
of epinephrine will raise the blood pressure, dilate the
bronchi, and decrease laryngeal spasms. Antihista
mines and corticosteroids (KORT-ti-ko-STEHR-oyds;
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Immune System Diseases and Disorders 71
Healthy Highlight
There’s a Difference
Between Food
Allergy and Food
Intolerance
P
eople often complain that they are “allergic” to certain foods or drinks, but are they
actually? Many times they are merely “intolerant or sensitive” to a particular food.
Knowing the difference is important to one’s health and to prevent a dangerous reac
tion such as anaphylaxis. Food allergies can result in serious medical emergencies if a
person ingests something to which they are highly allergic. If the person just has a sen
sitivity to the food, the reaction is usually much milder. These reactions might include
stomach cramping, excessive gas, rash, or headache. Many individuals who state they
are allergic to a particular food are probably just intolerant or sensitive to it. Common
foods people tend to have intolerance for include milk products, eggs, mushrooms, and
a variety of foods containing additives or preservatives. To determine an allergy versus
an intolerance, an elimination diet can be used as well as a food diary and even sensi
tivity skin testing. Because food allergies, especially to peanuts, seem to be a significant
issue in young children today, a simple reliable testing and prevention strategy needs to
be available. Some “slow exposure to the allergen” sensitivity therapy is being used and
is showing significant positive results. Perhaps this strategy will soon be utilized more
widely to assist the individual to overcome a food allergy or sensitivity.
powerful anti-inflammatory hormones) are given to
limit histamine production, thus slowing the allergic
reaction.
Follow-up treatment should include identifying the
allergen. The individual is taught to identify and avoid
the allergen and recognize the onset of a reaction. These
individuals should wear an allergy identification neck
lace or bracelet. Individuals who experience this severe
reaction should always carry an allergy kit containing
Benadryl (an antihistamine), syringes, and vials of epi
nephrine or an epinephrine auto-injector (EpiPen
®
or
Auvi-Q
®
). The individual and family members should
understand and practice the appropriate steps in treat
ing a reaction.
Food Allergies
■ Description. Gastrointestinal food allergies are often
difficult to diagnose. The process involves eliminating
certain foods and then adding these to the diet one at
a time.
■ Etiology. Chocolate and shellfish are common food
allergies. Often, the allergy is not to a specific food but
to additives or preservatives in the food. An allergy to
milk might not be a true allergy but rather an intol
erance to the lactose in the milk. Lactose intolerance
can be treated by taking lactose enzyme (lactase) before
consumption of dairy products.
■ Sym ptoms. Symptoms of food allergies may
include skin rash, abdominal cramping, diarrhea, and
vomiting.
■ Diagnosis. A thorough history from the patient and
the patient’s documented food diary aids in diagnosis.
Testing, including skin tests, blood tests, and food chal
lenges, is also helpful.
■ Treatment. If the allergic reaction is mild, treatment
with antihistamines might be sufficient. In a severe
reaction, the first priority is to maintain the airway.
Activation of the emergency medical system might be
needed.
Contact Dermatitis
■ Description. Contact dermatitis is an acute or chronic
allergic reaction affecting the skin.
■ Etiology. Often the allergen is some type of cos
metic, laundry product, plant, jewelry, paint, drug,
plastic, or a variety of other agents (Figure 5-5). Often,
it is difficult to determine the causative agent, and
once it is identified, complete avoidance of it might
not be possible.
Figure 5-5 Contact dermatitis.
■ Symptoms. Allergic lesions can range from small,
red localized lesions to vesicular lesions that cover the
entire body. A common example of contact dermatitis
is poison ivy.
■ Diagnosis. Skin patch testing helps determine the
diagnosis of the allergen (Figure 5-6).
■ Treatment. Treatment is not available until the aller
gen is diagnosed. Avoiding the allergen is the most
effective treatment.
Autoimmune Disorders
Autoimmune disorders are hypersensitivities in which the
body fails to recognize its own antigens or self-antigen.
An individual’s body cells have a specific antigen on
the cell surfaces. Failing to recognize this antigen as a
self-antigen leads to the body attacking and destroying
its own tissues. Several theories exist as to the cause of this
type of disorder, but currently, the cause for autoimmune
disorders is unknown. Autoimmune disorders include
rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis, myasthenia gravis,
type 1 diabetes, lupus erythematosus, and scleroderma.
Rheumatic Fever
■ Description. Rheumatic (ROO-MAT-ik) fever is an
inflammatory disease that can affect the heart, joints,
and skin.
■ Etiology. In a small number of individuals, rheumatic
fever occurs following a group A streptococcal (STRE-
HP-toh-KAHK-al) infection, usually strep throat. In
this select number of individuals, the proteins in their
hearts and other connective tissues are similar to the
protein of the strep bacteria. For this reason, rheumatic
fever tends to run in families. Exposure to strep bacteria
causes the immune system to make antibodies to fight
the bacteria. These antibodies also attack the tissues of
the heart and joints because they cannot distinguish the
differences in the proteins. Rheumatic fever is charac
terized by myocarditis (myo = muscle, cardi = heart,
itis = inflammation) and arthritis.
■ Symptoms. Rheumatic fever usually occurs 1 to
4 weeks after a streptococcal infection. Children and
adolescents are most commonly affected. The onset
of the disease can be sudden or gradual and includes
symptoms of fever, malaise, and joint pain. The first
occurrence of rheumatic fever might be mild and resolve
without any permanent damage. Further episodes are
usually more severe and might lead to permanent scar
ring and deformity of the heart valves (Figure 5-7).
Deformity of the mitral and aortic valve can eventually
lead to heart failure.
Courtesy of Mark L. Kuss
Figure 5-6 Skin patch testing.
Figure 5-7 Rheumatic fever: damaged heart valve.
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Immune System Diseases and Disorders 73
■ Diagnosis. There is no definitive test for diagnosing
rheumatic fever. Blood testing along with an electrocar
diogram to determine heart muscle damage are part of
the diagnostic workup, and a positive throat culture for
Streptococcus bacteria is also indicative of the diagnosis.
■ Treatment. Culturing for strep infections and pro
longed treatment (at least 10 days) with antibiotics are
most effective. Prophylactic (pro-fil-LACK-tic; works
to prevent) antibiotics can be given to susceptible
individuals. Surgical replacement of the heart valves
might be necessary for individuals with severe valve
deformity.
■ Prevention. Prompt and accurate diagnosis and treat
ment of group A streptococcal infections are the best
preventive measures against rheumatic fever.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
■ Description. Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune
disease that causes chronic inflammation of connective
tissue. Joint tissue is primarily affected, but any connec
tive tissue of the body might be involved.
■ Etiology. The exact cause of rheumatoid arthritis is
unknown, but it is associated with the production of
an abnormal antibody that attacks or attaches to the
body’s own cells and tissues. The presence of the anti
body called rheumatoid factor (RF) in the affected indi
vidual’s blood is indicative of the disease.
■ Symptoms. Commonly, metacarpal-phalangeal joints
of the hands are initially affected with rheumatoid
Figure 5-8 Ulnar deviation from rheumatoid arthritis.
arthritis. This leads to a classic sign of rheumatoid arthri
tis called ulnar deviation of the fingers (Figure 5-8). As
the disease progresses, involvement of other synovial
joints can occur. The joints affected can include those
of the fingers, wrists, elbows, feet, ankles, and knees.
Symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis can vary in severity
from mild to severe and might go through periods of
remission and exacerbation.
Rheumatoid arthritis begins with inflammation of
the synovial lining of the joint, leading to pain, stiffness,
and joint deformity. Eventually, the cartilage of the
joint is destroyed and replaced with a granulation tissue
called pannus (PAN-nus). As the disease progresses,
the entire joint surface is destroyed and replaced with
fibrous tissue, making the joint less movable. Fusion or
total loss of joint function is called ankylosis (ANG-kih-
LOH-sis; Figure 5-9).
In addition to joint changes, the individual might
also have lesions in the collagen of the lungs, blood
Courtesy of Mark L. Kuss
Figure 5-9 Joint changes from rheumatoid arthritis. (A) X-ray view. (B) Ankylosis.
74 Chapter 5
vessels, heart, and eyes, leading to pleuritis (PLOO-
RIGH-tis; pleura = pleura or lining of the lung, itis =
inflammation), anemia, valvulitis (VAL-view-LYE-tis;
valvul = valve, itis = inflammation), and glaucoma
(glaw-KOH-mah), respectively. Rheumatoid nodules
characteristically appear in the subcutaneous tissue
around the fingers, toes, and elbows (Figure 5-10).
Individuals with rheumatoid arthritis often appear frail
and chronically ill. Anemia and infection are common
secondary problems.
This chronic disease affects both sexes and all ages.
Women are affected three times more often than men.
This arthritis can begin at any age but commonly the
onset is between ages of 40 to 60. Rheumatoid arthri
tis in children (juvenile rheumatoid arthritis) usually
affects infants to children aged 16, and again affects
females more often than males.
■ Diagnosis. Diagnosis is based on physical examina
tion, characteristic symptoms, and blood tests including
positive rheumatoid factor, anti-CCP antibodies, and
elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR).
■ Treatment. Rheumatoid arthritis, like other autoim
mune disorders, cannot be cured. Treatment includes
using anti-inflammatory medications and analgesics.
Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs)
and biologic drugs act on the immune system and are
showing favorable progress in slowing the progression
of rheumatoid arthritis. DMARDs include Imutrex
®
(methotrexate), Plaquenil
®
(hydroxychloroquine),
and Azulfidine
®
(sulfasalazine). Biologic medications
are the newest and include Humira
®
(adalimumab),
Enbrel
®
(etanercept), and Actemra
®
(tocilizumab).
Other medications used in the treatment of rheuma
toid arthritis include Minocin
®
(minocycline), Neoral
®
(cyclosporin), and Imuran
®
(azathioprine).
Corticosteroids can be prescribed short term during
periods of exacerbation. An exercise and rest routine is
essential for maintaining joint function. Surgical joint
replacement might also be beneficial.
■ Prevention. There is no known way to prevent rheu
matoid arthritis. It has been discovered, however, that
smoking is one of the strongest and most consistent
modifiable risk factors.
Myasthenia Gravis
■ Description. Myasthenia gravis (MY-uh-STHEE-
nee-uh GRAV-iss) is characterized by severe muscle
fatigue.
■ Etiology. This disease affects the transmission of
nerve signals to muscle at the neuromuscular junc
tion, but there is no muscle or nerve tissue disease.
Nerve impulses are carried to the muscle by the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ah-SEE-til-KOH-
leen). These impulses are sent by the nerve but are
not properly received by the muscle. This error in
transmission is due to antibodies attacking the mus
cle receptors, which block the transmission by ace
tylcholine (Figure 5-11). This poor transmission of
information to the muscle leads to weak muscle con
tractions and fatigue.
Courtesy of Mark L. Kuss
Figure 5-10 Rheumatoid nodules. (A) Foot. (B) Elbow.
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Immune System Diseases and Disorders 75
Nerve endings
'— Muscle tissue
Normal (Magnified)
Figure 5-12 Myasthenia gravis: ptosis.
Nerve ending—,
Myasthenia Gravis (Magnified)
Nerves do not touch muscle tissue to stimulate movement.
Nerve endings secrete a neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (ACh),
that sticks to muscle tissue receptor sites, causing muscle
contraction.
Antibodies produced with myasthenia gravis block these
receptor sites, thus blocking muscle stimulus and movement.
Figure 5-11 Blocking of receptor sites in myasthenia
gravis.
Myasthenia gravis is one of the less common auto
immune disorders, with an estimated 20 cases per
100,000 people (Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of
America, 2018). Myasthenia can be categorized as an
autoimmune, musculoskeletal, or neurologic disease
because it has characteristics of problems in each of
these systems.
■ Symptoms. The onset of the disease is usually slow,
and diagnosis might be difficult because it can affect any
muscle of the body. Commonly, facial muscles are the
ones initially affected, leading to diplopia (dip-PLOHP-
ee-ah; double vision), ptosis (TOE-sis; drooping eye
lids; Figure 5-12), dysphagia (dys-FAY-jee-ah; difficulty
swallowing), dysphonia (dys-FOH-nee-ah; difficulty
talking), and difficulty with facial expressions, which
can leave the individual with an expressionless facial
appearance. Other symptoms relate to fatigue of all
voluntary muscles and include difficulty rising from a
sitting position, lifting the arms, standing, and walking.
The degree of weakness varies with the time of day
and activities. Generally, these individuals feel stronger
in the morning due to a buildup of acetylcholine and
become weaker as the day progresses because acetyl
choline stores diminish. Short rest periods are necessary
to help restore muscle function.
Periods of exacerbation and remission do occur.
During exacerbation, complete bed rest might be
necessary.
■ Diagnosis. Myasthenia is difficult to diagnose because
symptoms can be hard to distinguish from other neu
rologic disorders. A thorough physical exam might
reveal fatigue of the muscles; blood testing for antibod
ies against the acetylcholine receptor is also suggestive
of myasthenia. Other tests include electromyography to
test muscle fatigue and respiratory spirometry to assess
respiratory function.
■ Treatment. Treatment can include cholinergic medi
cations that do not allow the normal breakdown of the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine, allowing a buildup of
the neurotransmitter, thus improving neuromuscular
transmission. Plasma exchange to remove the circu
lating antibodies provides some improvement in the
condition. Recent advances in care and treatment have
greatly reduced the mortality rate. Death is usually due
to muscle weakness leading to respiratory failure.
■ Prevention. Myasthenia gravis cannot be prevented,
but avoiding stress, extremes in temperature, fever, ill
ness, and overexertion can help prevent exacerbations.
76 Chapter 5
How to Boost the
Immune System
Complementary and Alternative Therapy
T
here are a wide variety of suggestions for building the immune system’s power to
ward off disorders. Some of those that have proved to be effective include
■ a moderate diet—avoid foods that are processed or difficult to digest or that cause
gastric or intestinal irritability. Eat sulfur-rich foods and nuts seeds and sprouts.
■ staying hydrated—drink plenty of water daily but avoid sugary drinks.
■ getting plenty of rest and sleep—see Healthy Highlight on page 66.
■ using supplements as needed—antioxidants, vitamin D3, magnesium and L-ascorbate,
and zinc are often recommended. There are many other nutrients that can be benefi
cial to the immune system, but it varies with the individual, eating habits, and overall
health state.
Source: Jaffe (2020).
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (Insulin-Dependent
Diabetes Mellitus)
■ Description. Type 1 diabetes mellitus, formerly
known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM),
is a disease that alters the body’s carbohydrate or sugar
metabolism.
■ Etiology. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is believed to be
caused by an autoimmune disorder triggered by a viral
infection. The most common viral infections that might
lead to diabetes include rubella, mumps, and influenza.
The infecting virus inflames insulin-producing beta
cells of the pancreas, and the inflammatory process, for
reasons that remain unclear, seems to stimulate the beta
cells to produce an abnormal cell antigen. Lymphocytes
recognize the abnormal antigen as nonself and destroy
it along with the beta cells. Without insulin-producing
beta cells, the individual becomes dependent on insulin
injections to manage carbohydrate usage.
The normal antigens in the cells of the pancreas are
human leukocyte antigens (HLAs). Individuals genet
ically inherit the HLAs of the pancreas. The tendency
to develop an autoimmune response, and thus diabetes
mellitus, is considered hereditary in nature.
Complementary and Alternative Therapy
Plants to Stimulate
the Immune System
H
istobrically, a variety of plants have been used to stimulate the immune system.
Some have an antiviral effect while others have an anti-inflammatory effect. Many
have been used to boost the immune system and treat respiratory illnesses, ulcers,
cancer, and other ailments. Andrographis, astragalus, codonopsis, echinacea, elder
berry, eleuthero, schisandra, and turmeric have all been shown to have the potential
to strengthen the immune system. Some studies have demonstrated the therapeutic
effects of several of these plants for medicinal purposes while others still need further
testing. Although the plants have been used for hundreds of years to treat disorders, the
pharmacologic and immunostimulant value of many of them has yet to be determined.
However, supplements are usually needed only when the individual’s diet is insufficient
to maintain a healthy immune system.
Source: Alive: Canada’s Natural Health and Wellness Magazine (2020)
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