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Chapter 23
Role of Herbal Bioactive
Compounds as a Potential
Bioavailability Enhancer
for Active Pharmaceutical
Ingredients
Barbara Sawicka
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8183-7624
University of Life Science in Lublin, Poland
Parisa Ziarati
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9802-9949
Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad
University, Iran
Mohammed Messaoudi
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3536-6358
Nuclear Research Centre of Birine (CRNB),
Djelfa, Algeria & Chemistry Department,
University of Hamma Lakhdar El-Oued, Algeria
Jinous Agarpanah
Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad
University, Iran
ABSTRACT
Dominika Skiba
University of Life Science in Lublin, Poland
Bernadetta Bienia
Carpathian State College in Krosno, Poland
Piotr Barbaś
Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute-
National Research Institute, Jadwisin Research
Center, Poland
Abdelkrim Rebiai
University of Hamma Lakhdar El-Oued, Algeria
Barbara Krochmal-Marczak
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8619-3031
Carpathian State College in Krosno, Poland
Farhood Yeganehpoor
University of Tabriz, Iran
Bioactive compounds of plant origin are used all over the world because of their positive impact on human and animal health and because of their beneficial, specific properties. The most popular bioactive
compounds beneficial to health have been identified and defined earlier. Others are yet to be discovered.
In particular, the most common biological activities of these compounds were indicated, such as antial-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-6684-5129-8.ch023
Copyright © 2022, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Role of Herbal Bioactive Compounds as a Potential Bioavailability Enhancer
lergic, antidepressant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, antiviral,
antithyroid, anxiolytic, to cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, and flatulence-inhibiting effects. The beneficial properties of bioactive compounds may be associated with substances like alcohols, terpenoids,
phenolic antioxidants, and rosmarinic acid, which are present in several medicinal plants. The updated
review considers the physiological, botanical, phytochemical, and medical aspects of herbal bioactive
compounds as well as their therapeutic properties, with a focus on their health benefits and the potential
use of nutraceuticals.
INTRODUCTION
Biological plant compounds are now popular and studied by scientists in Europe and around the world.
Medicinal herbs and plants are a rich source of numerous substances with a broad spectrum of activity.
Bioactive compounds from herbs are widely used for medicinal, therapeutic and cosmetic purposes. Plants
with a health-promoting effect have been used since antiquity, and now, thanks to the use of research
methods, it is possible to thoroughly comprehend the mechanisms of influence of the complexes present in them. This influences the increasing use of plant materials in modern phytotherapy. Secondary
substances include, among others: tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolic compounds (Verma et al.,
2015; Abdel-Naime et al., 2019; Luta et al., 2020). The great variability of these bioactive fragments
makes them promising candidates for the production of pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals (Acevedo et al., 2013; Abdel-Naime et al., 2019). In recent years, there has been increasing
uses in bioactive compounds as substances that reduce the risk of non-communicable diseases. Herbal
teas and drinks, consumed as part of a balanced diet can improve a person’s overall health. They are an
excellent natural source of bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, coumarins, carotenoids,
phenolic acids, lignin’s, lignans, oxylipins, polyacetylenes, saponins, terpenoids and others (Awad et
al., 2009, Verma et al., 2015, Chandrasekara & Shahidi 2018, Abdel-Naime et al., 2019, Benarfa et al.,
2020, Sharifi-Radet al., 2021a; Sharifi-Radet al.; 2021b). The available literature provides information
on the beneficial biological activities of natural biological compounds. Herbs and medicinal plants may
contain plant pathogens such as mycophytes that reduce their quality and cause serious health problems
(Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2018; Sharifi-Radet al., 2021a; Sharifi-Radet al., 2021b). Fungi species
such as Alternaria sp., Fusarium sp. or Penicillium sp. May also produce secondary metabolites, posing
a serious threat to animal feed that require decontamination (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2021a; Heinrich et al.,
2020). Due to the known pharmacological activity of medicinal plants, this chapter highlights a fresh
look at chemical composition, pharmacological properties, pharmaceutical and therapeutic use, and
safety profiles in order to guide future work and assess their clinical value.
METHODOLOGY
To demonstrate the role of bioactive substances in plants and to fully assess the context, a quantitative
analysis of the literature was conducted, which shows great interest in them due to their highly beneficial
properties and pro-health effects. The search for bioactive compounds and their correlation with health
was conducted using the Scopus database to search bibliometric data by means of a keyword search
(bioactive compounds and health) (Scopus, 2022). The papers and books that mentioned these words,
their derivatives in the paper title, summary and keywords have been known in the search approach
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451
Role of Herbal Bioactive Compounds as a Potential Bioavailability Enhancer
Table 1. Phenolic compound of siderite condensate soaked in water at 100°C for 30 or 10 minutes
Phenolic compounds Plant elements
Phenolic acids
Protocatechuic
p-Hydroxybenzoic -
P-Vanillic 1.570
Ferulic 0.060
P-Coumarin seed 0.251
Caffeic leaf 0.607
Catechin
Rutin 0.880
kaempferol 1.058*
Quercetin
a-Isorhamnetin 1.528*
Source: own based on Chandrasekara & Shahidi (2018), USDA (2019). *Steeping for 10 minutes
flower
Flavonoids
0.210
leaf
flower
Phenolic acids
[g g-1DM]
0.21
1.903
(Software, VOSviewer, 2021). The functions of the Scopus internet platform called Analysis and Create
a citation report were used for basic analyzes. Then, the terms used in paper titles, highlight, graphical
abstract, summary and keywords of the publication were examined by using the VOSviewer software
(2021). As a result of the search, two hundred and eight publications for the period from 1979 to 2022
were considered.
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN HERBAL PLANTS
Medicinal plants, certain spices, herbal teas, as well as fruits, vegetables, oilseeds, pulses, and cereals
were considered the main sources of plant-derived antioxidants, essential in preventing oxidative loss
in the human body when the body’s internal antioxidant protection systems are threatened by overexposure to free energy (Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2018, Sharifi-Rad et al., 2020, 2021a, 2021c, 2021d;
Messaoudi et al., 2022).
Antioxidant Compounds in Herbal Plants
Phenolic Compounds
Regarding the polyphenol profile of methanol extracts from whole plants M. officinalis, Awad et al.
(2009) isolated the following organic acids: rosemary, ursolic and oleanolic. Astani et al. (2012)was
extracted from the dried leaves of Mellilotus officinalis the acids as: coffee acids, p-coumaric and rosemary. Active antioxidant compounds and nitric acids A and B, in turn, were found and also quantified
by Kamdem et al. (2013). In lemon balm leaves extracted with 70% ethanol, Javad Sharif et al. (2021a)
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Role of Herbal Bioactive Compounds as a Potential Bioavailability Enhancer
determined using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS) such compounds as: rutin,
isovercitin, quercetin, kaempferol and gallic, chlorogenic, coffee, rosemary and ellagic acids. Recently
from Thymus vulgaris leaves (Lamiaceae) leaf extract, by LC-MS, was isolated the following compounds:
ethyl caffeate, luteolin 3-O-β-D-glucuronide and the following organic acids: succinic, quinic, chicory,
citric, danshensu, malic, tartaric, caftaric, coffee, lithospermic A, salicylic and 3’-O-(8’’-Z-caffeoyl)
rosemarinic acid (Chandrasekara & Shahidi 2018, Aubert et al., 2019). Binello et al., (2017) used micro-
wave extraction (MAE) and ultrasound protocols to selectively extract polyphenols from M. officinalis.
These authors found that rosmarinic acid turned out to be the most critical part of phenolic fractions, and
ethanol was a good solvent in both USG and MAE procedures. E.g., Indian pennywort, Apiaceae family,
raw material: dried plant, health benefits: anti-cancer – increases the activity of antioxidant enzymes
(Chandrasekara & Shahidi 2018; Sharifi-Radet al., 2021c, 2021d; Messaoudi et al., 2022).
Phenolic Acids
In herbal plants, phenolic acids are found in bound form as esters and glycosides, included mostly in
the lignin’s and tannins. Phenolic acids in their structure have hydroxyl and carboxyl group. The most
common in medicinal plants are hydroxyl derivatives of benzoic and cinnamic acids. The composition
of hydroxybenzoic acids is shown in Table 37.1. In medicinal and spice plants, phenolic acids occur
in a bound form, in the form of esters and glycosides, which are included in lignin’s and hydrolysing
tannins. Herbal drinks have many phenolic acids (Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2018; Sharifi-Rad et al.,
2021d; Messaoudi et al., 2022).
Flavonoids
Flavonoids are among the most important polyphenols, which, due to the diversified chemical structure,
play a number of roles functions in plants. These compounds are found in vegetables, grains, tree bark,
rhizomes, stolons, roots, flowers, and fruits, as well as in tea and wine. These natural raw materials and
plant products are known to have beneficial effects on health. Flavonoids are currently considered an
essential ingredient in a diversity of nutraceutical, medicinal, and pharmaceutical applications. These
functions are attributed to their anti-mutagenic, antioxidant, anticancer and anti-inflammatory, characteristics. Due to their chemical structure, they can be divided into anthocyanidins, flavones, flavanols,
flavonols, flavanones and isoflavones (Acevedo et al., 2013; Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2018, Luta et
al., 2020). Flavonoids such as apigenin and isorhamnetin, catechin, quercetin, kaempferol and rutin are
components of the water infusions of Siderites condensate leaves, flowers, and seeds. For example, an
infusion of flowers prepared within 10 minutes has about 15 mg of isorhamnetin in 1 g of dry weight
(Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2018; Arshad et al., 2020).
Lignans
Lignans consist of two conjugated phenylpropanoid parts related by fundamental carbons of their on
the side chains (Luta et al., 2020). Secoisolaricresinol, lariciresinol, matairesinol, pinorezynol and
syringarezinol are lignans present in plants and most commonly consumed by humans. Lignans are
considered important in together the avoidance and treatment of cancer. Also, they are characterized
by other, positive healthiness effects, like: antimutagenic, antiestrogenic and anticancer. The positive
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Role of Herbal Bioactive Compounds as a Potential Bioavailability Enhancer
effect of plant lignans and their derivatives on health has been proven in vitro and in vivo tests. Both
secoisolaricresinol and matairesinol are very easily converted by the intestinal microflora in the human
intestine into lignans, enterodiol and enterolactone. They have an extraordinarily strong antioxidant and
estrogenic effect (Luta et al., 2020; Software, VOSviewer, 2021).
Lignin’s
Lignin’s are created as a result of the polymerization of a combination of three monolignols (Messaoudi
et al., 2022). Lignin’s are a polymer whose monomers are organic compounds derived from phenolic
alcohols. They are acrylic aldehyde, dihydroconiferyl alcohol, p-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde,
synapaldehyde, 5-hydroxyconiferyl alcohol, tyramine phebruate and other compounds that are makeup
lignin. This by-product goes a long way it is used for energy and medical purposes. The potential hidden
in the structure of lignin creates opportunities for broader directions of development, both scientific and
research and industrial. There are options for lignin in the treatment of diabetes, viral infections, obesity,
cancer, and thrombosis. Lignin’s can also be used to prepare nanoparticles for the delivery of various
drugs, and it is also possible to use them in photoprotection (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021c; Christensen, 2020).
Tannins
Tannins, compared to other polyphenolic compounds, are little known, but plant extracts containing this
have been used in folk and traditional medicine. These compounds fall into two groups: hydrolysing
(gallotannins and ellagotannins) and non-hydrolysing, also known as proanthocyanidins. In terms of
chemicals tannins are esters of sugars and phenolic acids or are polycondensates of flavonoids (flavan3-ols) (Messaoudi et al., 2022). Vegetable tannins can significantly improve the quality of meat and milk
and the oxidative stability of animal products, which has a considerable effect on human fitness and
health. The mechanism of the anti-inflammatory action of tannins was analysed (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021;
Christensen 2020). The biological activity of tannins is related to interact enzymatic, receptor proteins
and transcription factors. The toxicity of tannins results from their interaction with digestive enzymes and
the influence on the bacterial flora of the gastrointestinal tract, or the chelation of iron ions, which may
significantly influence the development of anaemia. In addition, tannins handle causing the astringency
effect when consuming foods rich in these compounds. This is due to the interaction of tannins with plant
proteins and taste receptors present on the surface of the tongue (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021d; Messaoudi
et al., 2022). Despite the influence of tannins on the human body, these compounds show a number of
pro-health properties: anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antiplatelet, antibacterial, and also
antiviral. The inhibition of tyrosine kinase, metalloproteinases and vascular endothelial growth factor
by tannins underlies their antiproliferative activity. In turn, inhibition the activity of various proteins
involved in the development of pro-inflammatory reactions (e.g., xanthine oxidase, cyclooxygenase two
and induced nitric oxide synthase) manages anti-inflammatory properties (Christensen, 2020).
Coumarins
Coumarin is chemically a lactone of ortho-hy-droxy-cis-cinnamic acid, also known as coumaric acid.
Food includes simple coumarins, furanocoumarins and pyranocoumarins (Luta et al., 2020; Christensen,
2020). Some herbs or spices used as nutraceuticals have natural coumarin compounds in significant
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Role of Herbal Bioactive Compounds as a Potential Bioavailability Enhancer
amounts. Recently, there has been a lot of interest in these compounds due to their general and specific
toxicity. Many natural coumarins have been evaluated for the pharmacological properties, including
neuroprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, and anticancer properties. Several natural coumarins have been used in drug development, such as warfarin (Astani et al., 2012; Christensen,
2020). Coumarin derivatives as natural chemical compounds (often in the form of glycosides) are used
in medicine. The richest source of structures having the system of coumarin, and its derivatives are
plants (plants from the celery family (Apiaceae), madder (Rubiceae), rutaceae (Rutaceae), olive (Olea-
ceae), Fabaceae (Fabaceae), Asteraceae (Asteraceae), Chestnut (Hippocastanaceae) and nightshades
(Solanaceae), as well as bacteria of Streptomyces and Aspergillus strains). Folk medicine has long used
the healing properties of plants, attributed in part to or all the coumarins present in them. An example
is lovage (Levisticum officinale), which is used in the case of stomach disorders or menstrual disorders,
but also coughs or as an early abortion measure, and has coumarin, umbeliferon, apertin and bergapten.
Many coumarin derivatives are also found in plants such as Ruta graveolens, Angelica archangelica,
and the marsh gorse (Peucedanum palustre) or gorse (Peucedanum praeruptorum) (Astani et al., 2012,
Luta et al., 2020; Christensen, 2020).
Terpenes
Terpenes and derivatives of terpenoids are secondary metabolites, derived from isoprene (2-methylbutadiene) (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2020). Depending on the quantity of isoprene components, the organic
compounds of terpenes divided into the categories: isopropenes (C
), diterpenes (C20), sesterpenes (C25) and the politerpenes. The assembly of triterpene composites
(C
15
), monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes
5
includes triterpenes and sterols, which accumulate in plants like saponins (glycosides). Saponins are
plant chemical compounds belonging to the group of glycosides, i.e., substances derived from sugars.
These are plant compounds with foaming properties, they were used as a soap substitute, for example
for washing. Saponins, apart from washing properties, also have valuable health and healing properties. They have a diuretic, expectorant effect, increase the secretion of mucus, support the processes of
absorption of nutrients from the intestines into the blood, have an antibacterial, protozoicidal, antiviral,
and anti-inflammatory characteristics. In addition, stimulate the secretion of gastric juices, bile, and
intestinal juice, supporting digestive processes, lowering the level of “bad” cholesterol, increasing the
digestion of fats, but large doses administered orally have an emetic effect. Saponins called sapogenin
is secondary metabolites with surface-active properties. It is now known that saponins, apart from
washing properties, also have valuable health properties and broad healing effects. For these reasons,
this substance has been used in the treatment of many diseases. Saponins are diuretic and expectorant
intensify the secretion of mucus, support the absorption of nutrients from the intestines into the blood,
have, antibacterial, antiviral, protozoicidal and anti-inflammatory properties, stimulate the secretion of
gastric juice, bile and intestinal juice, supporting digestive processes, reduce the level of “bad” cholesterol, increase the digestion of fats large doses administered orally have an emetic effect (Astani et al.,
2012; Sharifi-Rad et al., 2020; Christensen, 2020).
Carotenoids
Carotenoids (CT) usually are yellow, red, or orange pigments. These colors ordinarily show changed types
of Carotenoids and different bioactive properties due to their distinctive structure, plus antioxidant and
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Role of Herbal Bioactive Compounds as a Potential Bioavailability Enhancer
anti-inflammatory properties. Around 750 Carotenoids occur in nature, and they are available in plants
as well as animals (Acevedo et al., 2013; Benarfa et al., 2020). They are characterized by provitamin A
and antioxidant properties. They belong to hydrocarbons with a minimum of forty carbon atoms with
eight isoprene units. The structure of carotenoids able to be cyclized at single or together ends and is
characterized by a different amount of hydrogen atoms or by having a functional group that has oxygen,
the latter being called xanthophylls. Analysing the chemical structure of these compounds, it can be said
that it is a system of eleven conjugated double bonds, thanks to which they can be classified into the
group of polyisoprenes. They are insoluble in water, but very soluble in fats, with which they often form
esters. Due to the differences in the polyisoprene chain, carotenoids are branched into two classes. The
main of them are compounds having only carbon and hydrogen atoms with the formula C
40H56
. These are
most often all-trans isomers, thermodynamically more stable. The change of the isomerism to cis-trans is
possible only at elevated temperature and / or with intense radiation. Isomers yew is found in vegetables
and fruits (Benarfa et al.,2020). Due to this structure, carotenoids are less polar substances, they absorb
radiation with a higher wavelength. The first group of carotenoids also includes compounds that have
short carbon chains but have a central carotene fragment with four methyl groups (e.g., bixin). Whereas
the second group of compounds has at least one oxygen atom, e.g., in a hydroxyl group, carbonyl, carboxyl or hydroxymethyl. The second group of carotenoids is called xanthophylls. These relationships are
common in nature, they are similar both chemical, biochemical, and physicochemical. Xanthophylls are
more compounds polar, absorbing radiation with lower wavelengths than other carotenoids. Due to this
structure, carotenoids are less polar substances, they absorb radiation with a higher wavelength (AbdelNaime et al., 2019). The first group of carotenoids also includes compounds that have short carbon chains
but have a central carotene fragment with four methyl groups (e.g., bixin). Whereas the second group of
compounds has at least one oxygen atom, e.g., in a hydroxyl group, carbonyl, carboxyl or hydroxymethyl.
The second group of carotenoids is called xanthophylls. These relationships are common in nature, they
are similar both chemical, biochemical, and physicochemical. Xanthophylls are more compounds polar,
absorbing radiation with lower wavelengths than other carotenoids (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2021d). The
most common organic chemical in foods include β-carotene, alpha-carotene, and lycopene (carotenes),
and lutein, astaxanthin, cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin and fucoxanthin (xanthophylls). The
main active carotenoids of provitamin A are β-carotene, α-carotene and cryptoxanthin. Carotenoids
are naturally occurring pigments that play a significant role primarily in neurodegenerative diseases in
preventing brain disorders (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2020, 2021d).
Polyacetylenes
Among the plant compounds with potential action alkaloids, including isoquinoline and steroid alkaloids
as well as alkaloids from the Amaryllidaceae and Colchicum families, were antibacterial and antifungal.
They are in this group coumarins, quinones, polyacetylenes, saponins and plant compounds from other
chemical groups. Polyacetylenes are a set of bioactive compounds in which the bonds between carbon
atoms are formally alternating double and single bonds (so-called conjugated bonds). Polyacetylenes
are formed during acetylene polymerization, during which triple bonds transform into double bonds,
creating bonds between later molecules: n CHºCH ® - (CH = CH) (Kamdem et al., 2013). In the studies
of Ouakouak et al. (2021). Leaf-derived essential oils (EO) were shown to have low radical scavenging
activity using the two antioxidant tests DPPH and ABTS. Moreover, EO was characterized by a strong
inhibitory effect on colon cancer and moderate inhibition of hepatocellular carcinoma cells.
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Role of Herbal Bioactive Compounds as a Potential Bioavailability Enhancer
Figure 1. Diagram of the interaction of the widely essential bioactive compounds from medicinal plants
and their relationship with biological activity.
Oxylipins
Oxylipins are a family of oxidized natural products, obtained from fatty acids in processes with at least
one oxygen-dependent oxidation stage. Oxylipins manage the signalling of molecules resulting from
the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). They are important cell mediators, and their action
is often similar to that of local hormones (Verma et al., 2015). They are derived from polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFAs) via COX (cyclooxygenase) enzymes, LOX (lipoxygenase) enzymes or cytochrome
P450 peroxygenase. These compounds perform various physiological functions in plants. They take part
in the defence reactions of plants to biotic stress. Bioactive acetylene oxylipins (C17, C18) in medicinal
plants they stand up by anticancer, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds are
widespread in plants of the Apiaceae, and Asteraceae families and have an effect on the inhibition of
the cell cycle and on the elimination of cancer cells that have been used up or damaged and therefore
could harm the proper functioning of the body. They also exert a chemopreventive result on the growth
of cancer. Oxylipins have a strong effect on the improvement of fungi. The use of oxylipins as potential
food preservatives is under consideration (Christensen, 2020).
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