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464 Herbal Pharmacopeia
affect the chemical composition of natural goods, making it difcult to guarantee the consistent
quality and efcacy of compounds derived from plants (Yang etal., 2018).
Better techniques are needed to ensure the consistent replication of medicinal effects, which calls
for the standardization of plant extracts. Ensuring the safety and effectiveness of natural goods
requires the implementation of stringent quality control procedures, such as thorough testing and the
establishment of exact quality standards. Variations in the concentration of contaminants or bioactive chemicals have an impact on the safety and efcacy of herbal treatments. Plant- derived compounds exhibit considerable heterogeneity in their pharmacokinetics, which encompasses their
bioavailability, distribution, metabolism, and elimination within the human body (Lan and Jia,
2010). The efcacy of pharmacological drugs can be impacted by variables such as chemical stability, absorption rates, and interactions with other substances. For the purpose of creating drugs with
dependable and constant therapeutic effects, it is essential to comprehend and enhance the pharmacokinetic characteristics of plant compounds (Kumar and Sharma, 2018). This may involve chemical modications, formulation techniques, or drug delivery systems to enhance their clinical
efcacy.
The laws governing drugs derived from plants are complicated and varies throughout nations and
areas. Development takes longer and costs more because regulatory agencies frequently require
evidence of safety and efcacy testing (Fan etal., 2012). Concerns concerning intellectual property
are also brought up by the commercialization of traditional knowledge and plant resources, which
sparks debates about just recompense for indigenous people and the preservation of their cultural
legacy. Certain plant materials come from particular regions and might not be easily accessible or
reasonably priced for everyone (Nicoletti, 2012). The restricted availability of certain medications
may impede fair dissemination of their advantages, particularly for individuals residing in impoverished or nancially challenged areas. A multidisciplinary strategy is needed to address these issues,
including conservation initiatives, sustainable harvesting methods, strict quality control procedures,
harmonized regulations, and moral responsibility of individuals.
22.7 FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Natural chemicals derived from plants are expected to continue to be a valuable resource for the
creation of novel drugs and therapeutic approaches. According to Lautie etal. (2020), a broad range
of molecules with potential medical applications are available due to the tremendous chemical variety present in plants. Research on novel bioactive compounds and plant modes of action continues
to strengthen the medication development pipeline. This is especially important when researchers
look for sustainable and alternative medicine sources. Developments in the study and cultivation
of plant- based materials are intimately related to advances in genomes and metabolomics. A thorough knowledge of the genetic processes generating bioactive compounds is made possible by plant
genome sequencing (Marchev etal., 2021). A comprehensive review of the tiny molecules found in
plant systems is provided by metabolomics. These advanced methods allow scientists to accurately
identify potential compounds, predict their functions, and modify plant genomes to enhance the
production of valuable metabolites. This systematic approach streamlines the discovery process,
reducing the need for exhaustive examination while facilitating the development of compounds
tailored for specic therapeutic properties.
The application of chemicals generated from plants will continue to be greatly advanced by biotechnology and synthetic biology. It is anticipated that advances in genetic engineering, bioproduction, and route optimization will increase the variety of compounds that can be harvested from plants
(Dörnenburg, 2009). Ecological concerns can be addressed by using bioreactors, which are controlled settings that provide a scalable and sustainable way to produce chemicals obtained from
plants. Plant metabolites can be tailored to the unique requirements of drug development by genetic
engineering and changes of pathways (Moon etal., 2019). In future, precision medicine and tailored
therapies could benet from the use of plant- derived compounds. Researchers will be able to
Present Challenges and Future Perspective of the Herbal Drug Industry 465
customize medicines depending on a person’s genetic composition and health features by using
genomic and metabolomic data (Ottinger and Geiselman, 2023). By addressing each patient’s distinct health demands, this strategy will pick or design specic plant- based chemicals to maximize
therapeutic efcacy and minimize side effects.
Research on the synergistic effects of chemicals originating from plants and how they interact
with traditional drugs is an area that is expanding quickly. In a number of medical disorders, combining synthetic medications with natural plant compounds may improve treatment results, lessen
side effects, and overcome drug resistance (Yuan, 2016). Future studies on understudied plant species could be part of the process of developing plant- based pharmaceuticals (Shu, 1998). Various
parts of the world are home to distinct and unexplored biological resources. Examining these
creatures scientically may reveal previously unidentied substances with important therapeutic
promise.
22.8 CONCLUSIONS
Herbal remedies obtained from plants are known for ages to cure diseases and will continue to be
important sources of natural medicines and help in the design and synthesis of different drugs for
the treatment of diseases in humans and animals. With the increase in awareness about low- level
side effects of herbal drugs, interest in exploring the medicinal properties of previously unknown
natural substances is also increased. In the process of the development plant- based drugs, there is
an optimization of phytochemicals done to produce potential analogs having drug effectiveness and
safer to use. There is great surge of interest in herbal products and numerous innovative techniques
and research advancements have been developed for selecting, identifying, isolating, characterizing,
and biologically screening natural ingredients. These innovations can reduce the technical challenges associated with herbal drug development and throw light on the difcult process involved
in discovering and producing new herbal remedies. It is assumed that plants will remain the main
source to provide biomolecules which are not known, and will facilitate the discovery of new and
better treatments for curing different diseases. However, their great demand in the global market
challenges their survival. Therefore, it is important to ensure the conservation of vulnerable, threatened, and overexploited genetic resources to the greatest extent possible. This will allow future
generations, equipped with advanced abilities, to conserve and utilize these species more efciently
and sustainably.
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Index
Pages in italics refer to gures and pages in bold refer to tables.
A
Absorption, 259, 259–260, 260
inux or efux via active transport, 262
solubility, 262
via passive diffusion, 262
Acoustic methods, 254
Activation- induced cell death (AICD), 106–107
Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (API), 443
Adulteration, 29
Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOP), 427
Africa, 27
Agitation, 39
Agreement on Trade Related Intellectual Property Systems
(TRIPS), 462
Akkadians, 22
Alcohol, 38
Aliphatic amino acids, 92
Alkaloids, 38, 167, 168, 168, 169
biological activities and plant source, 99
classication and chemical structures, 97, 99
GC- MS, 52
HPLC, 49
LC- MS, 54
as pungent compounds, 37
solubility, 37
Allergy, 135
Allium cepa, 109
Aloe vera, 21
Ambrosino, L., 459
American Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AHP), 1
Analytical techniques, 452
Ancient civilizations, 21–24
Chinese, 23
Egyptian, 21–22
Greek, 23–24
Indian, 23
Mesopotamia, 22
Roman, 21, 24
Andrographis paniculata, 102
Angelica keiskei, 101
The Annals of Internal Medicine, 31
Anthocyanins, 93–94, 94
Antiallergic activity of medicinal plants, 135
Antibacterial nanomedicine, 220, 223–224
Antibiotics, 89, 108–109
arbitrary usage, 89
development, 122
harmful side effects, 122
microorganisms resistant to, 122–123
Anticancer activity of medicinal plants, 126–127
Anticancer nanomedicines, 218, 219, 221–222
Antidiabetic activity of medicinal plants, 135–136
Antidiabetic bioactive compounds, 108, 108
Antidiabetic nanomedicines, 219, 226–227
Antifungal nanomedicines, 220, 224–225
Anti- inammatory activity of medicinal plants, 132–133
Anti- inammatory bioactive compounds, 108
Antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants, 123–125
Antimicrobial chemicals, 90
Ant- inammatory nanomedicines, 219, 222–223
Antioxidant activity of medicinal plants, 128–130, 130
Antipyretic activity of medicinal plants, 134
Antiviral activity of medicinal plants, 127–128, 128
Aphanamixis polystachya, 460–461
Apoptosis, 106–107
Approval process, 448–449, 450
divergence, 449
post- market surveillance, 449
pre- market, 448–449
Artemisia annua, 68, 72–74, 79
Artemisinin, 79
Articial intelligence (AI), 182
Asia, 24
healing herbs, 27, 28
Aspirin, 156
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), 253
Avicenna, 2
Ayurveda, 5–6, 19, 90–91
as an ancient medical system, 23
bhasmas, 6
cancer therapy, 6
Pancha Mahabhuta, 5
physical attributes, 5
regulations, 446
Ayurveda Aahara, 446
Ayush system, 446
Azadirachtin, 95, 96, 97
Azadiracthta indica, 101, 128, 132, 223, 226; see also
neem
B
Bacopa monnieri, 101, 290, 295
Baliospermum montanum, 102
Barriers to herbal formulations, 378–379
Bauhinia variegata, 101–102, 193–194
Bengal Pharmacopoeia and General Conspectus of
Medicinal Plants, 3
Berberine (BBR), 231
Bhasmas, 6, 12–13
Bioactive compounds
analysis, 62
extraction, 62
identication, 71–72
quality control, 61
standardization, 61–62
synthesis and purpose, 92
Bioassay- guided fractionation, 66, 70
Bioavailability, 30, 257–281, 379, 380
absorption, 259, 259–260, 260
468
Index 469
inux or efux via active transport, 262
solubility, 262
via passive diffusion, 262
distribution, 259, 260
excretion, 259, 261
factors affecting, 261–263
metabolism, 259, 260–262
post- absorption, 263
prior to absorption, 263
nanocarriers, 383
clinical applications, 278–279
future perspectives, 279–280
liposomes, 264–266
mechanisms of action, 263, 263
micelles, 270–271
nanoemulsions, 268–270
opportunities and challenges, 280–281
pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, 276–277
polymeric nanoparticles, 266–268
solubility enhancement, 271–273
stability of herbal extracts, 273–275
targeted delivery and controlled release, 275–276
nanotechnology, 228–229, 258–259
therapeutic efcacy, 258
Bioinformatics, 459–460
Bioinspiration, 370
Biological assays, 453
Biological barriers, 229
Biomimetics, 370
Biopiracy, 461
Bioreactors, 74, 459
Biosynthesis of nanoparticles, 249–250
Biosynthetic gene clusters (BGC), 72
Biosynthetic pathways, 72
Biotechnology, 459–460
herbal drug discovery, 152–159
B- lymphocytes, 103
Bornyl acetate, 95, 96, 97
Botanical extracts for synthesis, 249–250
Brassinosteroids, 95
British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (BHP), 1
The British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 31
The British Medical Journal, 31
Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) method, 251
C
Calendula arvensis, 102
Camellia sinensis, 109
Camphene, 95, 96, 97
Canada, 442
Cancers, 126–127
bioactive compounds treating, 103–105, 104–105
nanomedicine for, 218, 219, 221–222
phytonanomedicines, 190–192, 192
Canon of Medicine (Avicenna), 2
Carbon dots (CD), 227
Carbon nanotubes (CNT), 217, 218, 222, 417
targeted delivery systems, 351, 353
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), 227–228
phytonanomedicines, 196–198, 198
3-Carene, 95, 96, 97
Carriers, nanoparticles as
for fungicides, 202–203
for herbicides, 203–204
for insecticides, 202
Carriers systems for targeted drugs, 349–356
aptamers, 355
carbon nanotubes (CNT), 351, 353
dendrimers, 351, 352–353
DNA nanostructures/origami, 351, 354–355
liposomes, 349–350, 351
micelles, 351, 352
microspheres and micropellets, 355
phytosomes, 351, 353–354
polymeric nanoparticles, 350–352, 351
Catharanthus roseus, 54, 60, 67, 71–72, 92, 106, 126, 149,
194, 223, 462
The Causes of Plants, 25
CBD, see Convention on Biological Diversity
Cell culture, 453
Cell suspension cultures, 74
Celsus, 24, 91
Central nervous system (CNS), 225; see also
neurodegenerative diseases
Challenges with herbal medicine, 28–31
bioavailability, 30
clinical trials, 31
quality control, 29
regulation and safety, 29
safety monitoring, 30
Chamomile, 21
Charaka Samhita, 2, 23, 65
Chelerythrine, 97, 99, 99
Chemical composition, 79–80, 179–180
Chemical ngerprinting, 61
Chemical identication, 178
Chemical synthesis of nanoparticles, 243–246
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 245–246
electrochemical, 245
hydrothermal, 244–245
microemulsion, 244
polyol, 245
sol- gel method, 243–244
spinning, 244
thermal decomposition, 245
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 245–246
China, 23, 27
China Food and Drug Administration, 446
Chloroform, 38
Cinnamomum verum, 7
Citrus aurantifolia, 102
Clinical trials, 31, 449
Coacervation, 175
Collaboration
international, 450
Collaborative research, 451
Column chromatography, 70
Combination therapies, 148, 228
Comparative research, 451
Compendium of Materia Medica, 65
Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM), 441–442
Computational resources for herbal drug discovery,
150–151
Conservation and propagation, 148–149
Contamination, 29
470 Index
Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, 442
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 462
Convention on the International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, 454
Copper nanoparticles (CuNP), 201, 226
Cost and scalability, 230
Crateuas, 25
CRISPR/Cas9, 75, 82
Culpeper, Nicholas, 26
Curcuma longa, 7
Curcumin, 13, 67–68, 76–78, 81, 101, 104, 170, 174, 176,
190–193, 197, 214, 217, 273, 275, 278, 289,
292–293, 295–297, 299–300, 306, 320, 339–
340, 351, 354, 376, 379, 402–406, 408–409, 413
antibacterial activity, 224
cardiovascular illnesses and, 227–228
nanoencapsulated, 223
neuroprotective, 225
D
Daptomycin, 109
Data management, 453
De Materia Medica (Dioscorides), 2, 24
Dendrimers, 202, 214, 217, 221, 306, 340, 382
characteristics, 9
drug delivery, 241
targeted drugs, 351, 352–353
Developed nations, 20
Developing countries, 20
DF4nanoGrouping, 427–428
Diabetes mellitus (DM), 108
herbal nanomedicine for, 219, 226–227
medicinal herbs, 135–136
phytonanomedicines, 193–194, 194
Diagnostic Handbook (Esagil- kin- apli), 22
Diffusion, 37
Diocles of Carystus, 23–24
Dioscorides, Pedanius, 2, 24, 91
Distribution, 259, 260
Diterpenes, 49, 54, 60, 95
Diverse regulatory standards, 449–450
DNA barcoding, 178, 426
Dose reduction, 229
3D printing, 369–370
Drug and Cosmetics Act of 1940, 440
Drug delivery
clinical status of, 384–386
3D printing, 370
fundamentals, 345–349
nanocarriers, see nanocarriers
Dynamic light scattering, 252
E
Egypt, 21–22
Elderberries, 23
Electrochemical synthesis, 245
Electron beam evaporation (EBE), 247
Electrospraying, 248–249
Elicitation, 74
Encapsulation, 4, 174–175, 253, 369
coacervation, 175
microencapsulation, 175
nanocarrier, 279
spray drying, 175
Enzyme- assisted extraction (EAE), 69, 172
Enzyme engineering, 5
Ephedrine, 97, 99, 99
Escherichia coli, 74
Essential oils, 24, 27, 31, 37, 52
components of, 95
compounds and chemical structures, 95, 96
nanoemulsion formulations, 78
Ether, 38
Ethical sourcing, see sustainable and ethical sourcing
Ethnobotanical approaches, 67–68, 100
Ethnobotanicals, 27
Ethosomes, 8, 243, 337–338
Euphorbia hirta, 101
European Medicine Agency (EMA), 443–444
major responsibilities, 443
quality guidelines, 443–444
European Patent Ofce, 463
European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.), 3
Extraction
comparative analysis, 173
enzyme- assisted extraction (EAE), 69, 172
herbal formulations, 170–173, 173
method of, 39–40
microwave- assisted extraction (MAE), 42–43, 172
pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), 45–46
solvent, see solvent
subcritical water extraction (SWE), 47–48
supercritical uid extraction (SFE), 40–41, 47, 68, 171
ultrasonic, 171–172
ultrasound- assisted extraction (UAE), 43–44, 69
F
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act (FFDCA), 441–442,
448
Feynman, Richard, 213
Fidaxomicin, 109
Flame spray process (FSP), 248
Flavanones, 93–94, 94, 102
Flavones, 94, 94
Flavonoids, 60, 66, 68, 168, 168, 169
biological activities and plant source, 94
chloroform in extraction of, 38
classication and chemical structures, 93, 93–94
FTIR analysis, 56
GC- MS analysis, 51–52
HPLC analysis, 49
LC- MS analysis, 53–54
nanoparticles encapsulation, 4
as pungent compounds, 37
as secondary metabolite, 89–90
solubility, 37
solvent extraction, 68
ultrasound- assisted extraction (UAE), 69
Flavonols, 94, 94, 129
Flexner, Abraham, 26
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 440–442, 448–449
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, 446
Food supplements, 440, 448
Index 471
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 55–58
phytochemical identication, 56
principles, 55
Fraxinus hookeri, 101
Functional food, 448
Fungal infections, 224–225
Fungicides, 202–203
Future directions, 464–465
G
Galen, 2, 23–24
Garcinia xanthochymus, 101
Garlic, 21
Gas chromatography- mass spectrometry (GC- MS), 51–53
data analysis and interpretation, 53
endowed oil analysis, 52
principles, 51
quantitative analysis, 53
sample preparation, 52
Gelperina, S., 460
Genetic engineering, 459–460
Genetic modication, 73–74
Genome mining, 154
Genomics, 66, 146–147
for discovery of drugs, 154, 155
personalized herbal medicine, 177; see also
pharmacogenomics
Genotoxicity assessment, 422, 444–445
Gerard, John, 26
Germany, 20, 27
Germ theory of disease, 19
Gestational DM, 108
Ginger, 21, 278
Ginger extract nanocarriers, 278
Glebionis coronaria, 102
Global Coalition for Regulatory Science Research
(GCRSR), 441
Global market, 1, 100, 463
Glycosides, 50, 168, 168, 169
Glycyrrhiza uralensis, 107, 147
Good manufacturing practices (GMP), 178–179, 452–453
Greece, 23–24
Green design, 370–371
Green tea, 109, 172, 214–215, 278, 297
The Grete Herball, 26
Gymnema sylvestre, 102, 126, 149
H
Hausa herbal pharmacopoeia, 4
Hazard Evaluation Strategy (HES), 428
Hazards Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), 442
Health Canada (HC), 442
Hepatic disease, 130–131
Hepatitis, 107, 107
Hepatoprotective activity of medicinal plants, 130–131
Herbal drug discovery
biotechnology, 152–159
combination therapy, 148
computational resources, 150–151
conservation and propagation, 148–149
emerging technologies, 158–159
history, 146
limitations, 156–159
molecular and genetic study, 146–147
molecular pharmacognosy, 147
overview, 145
pharmacogenomics, 149–150
regulatory hurdles, 156–158; see also plant- based drug
discovery
Herbal extracts, 367–372
bioavailability, see bioavailability
complexity, 180
future research, 371–372
Herbal formulations, 166–184
advanced strategies, 173–177
barriers to, 378–379
bioavailability of, 379, 380
challenges, 179–183, 184
conventional dosage forms, 380–382
extraction techniques, 170–173, 173
future directions in development of, 182–183
phytochemicals, 167–170, 168, 168
quality control and standardization, 177–179
Herbalism, see herbal medicine
Herbalists, 24–27
Herbal Medicinal Products Committee (HMPC), 443
Herbal medicines, 393–397
advantages of, 346–347
ancient civilization, 21–24
challenges and limitations, 463–464
challenges with, 28–31, 348
bioavailability, 30
clinical trials, 31
quality control, 29
regulation and safety, 29
safety monitoring, 30
classication, 448
current status, 27–28
dened, 19
early modern era, 25–26
efcacy and safety, 12
evolution, 2
future directions, 464–465
future perspectives, 31–32
global market, 1, 100, 463
Middle Ages, 24–25
modern medicine and, 394–395
modern times, 26–27
prehistory, 20–24
primary healthcare, 1
trade of, 100
translation of herbs, 25
use/usage, 1, 396–397; see also medicinal plants;
nanomedicines; phytonanomedicines
Herbal phytoconstituents, 376–377, 377
Herbal supplements, 448
Herbicides, 203–204
Herbosomes, see phytosomes
Herbs, 2, 21
culinary, 19
Dioscorides’ discoveries, 24
drug discovery, 99–100
extrinsic, 24
medicinal usage, 21, 21
472 Index
Herodotus, 91
Hibiscus rosasinensis, 461
High- energy ball milling process, 246
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), 107
High- performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 48–51
bioactive compounds analysis, 49–50
challenges and prospects, 51
chiral, 50
with MS, 50
pharmacokinetic, 50–51
principles, 49
quality control, 50
Hippocrates, 2, 91
Hippocratic Corpus, 23
Hippocratic Corpus (Dioscorides), 2
HIV/AIDS, 106–107
HIV- related wasting symptoms, 27
Homeopathy, 90
Homoharringtonine, 97, 99, 99
Hoslundia opposita, 101
Huangfu Mi, 23
Human healthcare, 101–109
Hybrid vigor/heterosis, 92
Hydrogels, 9
Hydrophilic drugs, 9
Hydrophobic drugs, 9
Hydrothermal synthesis, 244–245
Hyperglycemia, 108
Hypericum perforatum, 74
I
Immune system, 102, 102–103
Immunomodulators, 103, 136–137
Immunomodulatory activity of medicinal plants, 136–137
Immunostimulation, 103
Immunosuppression, 103
India, 23, 27
Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia (IHP), 1
Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC), 2
Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP), 2–3
Inert gas condensation (IGC), 247–248
Inammation, 132–133, 156, 222–223
Insecticides, 202
Integration
benets of, 452
research approaches to, 451
Intellectual Property (IP), 3
Intellectual property rights (IPR), 461–463
Interdisciplinary research, 451
International collaboration, 450
International Union for Conservation of Nature, 145, 149
Inula crithmoides, 102
Iron nanoparticles (FeNP), 201
Isoavones, 93, 93, 94, 94
J
Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), 31
K
Korean Herbal Pharmacopoeia (KHP), 1
L
The Lancet, 31
Laser ablation (LA), 247
Laser pyrolysis, 248
Lautie, E., 464
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), 21, 52, 171
Layer- by- layer nanoparticles, 9
Leonurus cardiaca, 91
Lignin, 93–94, 106, 126, 135
Limonene, 95, 96, 97, 169
Liposomes, 8, 241, 460–461
herbal formulations, 174
nanocarriers, 76, 264–266
novel drug delivery, 335
quercetin in, 78, 278
targeted delivery systems, 349–350, 351
Liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry (LC- MS),
53–55
applications, 54–55
methods, 54
principles, 53
Liquid–liquid extraction, 70
Lithospermum erythrorhizon, 74
Lycium barbarum, 101
Lymphocytes, 102–103
M
Machine learning (ML), 182
Macrophages, 103
Madagascar, 462
Magnetic nanoparticles, 240–241
Malaria, 155
Mao Zedong, 26
Marker compound analysis, 62
Mass transfer, 37
agitation, 39
Medicinal plants, 123–138
antiallergic activity, 135
anticancer activity, 126–127
antidiabetic activity, 135–136
anti- inammatory activity, 132–133
antimicrobial activity, 123–125
antioxidant activity, 128–130, 130
antipyretic activity, 134
antiviral activity, 127–128, 128
disadvantages, 137
future prospects, 137–138
hepatoprotective activity, 130–131
immunomodulatory activity, 136–137
nervous system activity, 131–132; see also herbal
medicines
Melt mixing, 247
Menstruum, 38
Meriones tersicus, 20
Mesopotamia, 22
Metabolic engineering, 74
Metabolism, 259, 260–261, 262
post- absorption, 263
prior to absorption, 263
Metabolomics, 50–51, 66, 154
Metallic nanoparticles, 240
Index 473
Micelles, 9
nanocarriers, 270–271
targeted delivery systems, 351, 352
Microbial synthesis, 249
Microemulsion technique, 244
Microencapsulation, 175
Microorganisms, 122–123
Micropropagation, 74, 149
Microscopic identication, 178
Microspheres, 242
Microwave- assisted extraction (MAE), 42–43, 172
components, 42
methods, 42–43
types of, 42
working principle, 42
Middle Ages, 24–25
Middle East, 24
Mint, 21
Molecular modeling method, 460
Molecular pharmacognosy, 147
Monoterpenes, 49, 54, 60, 95, 125, 131
Morphine, 20, 52, 65, 79, 97, 99, 99, 100, 132, 167
Morphological identication, 177
Multidrug resistance, 89
Murraya koenigii, 101
N
Nanocapsules, 8–9, 14, 194, 202, 214–215, 216, 218,
222, 226, 335, 350, 351, 369, 460
Nanocarriers, 75–77
animal studies, 385
bioavailability, 383
clinical applications, 278–279
future perspectives, 279–280
liposomes, 264–266
mechanisms of action, 263, 263
micelles, 270–271
nanoemulsions, 268–270
opportunities and challenges, 280–281
pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, 276–277
polymeric nanoparticles, 266–268
solubility enhancement, 271–273
stability of herbal extracts, 273–275
targeted delivery and controlled release, 275–276
controlled release, 383
drug discovery and delivery, 382–384
lipid- based, 384
liposomes, 76, 264–266
nanoemulsions, 77, 268–270
nanoparticles, 76
targeted delivery, 383
types of, 382, 383
Nanoemulsions, 8, 174, 216
droplets in, 8
nanocarriers, 77, 268–270
Nanobers, 216, 226–227, 353
Nanoformulations, 369–371
Nanogels, 9
Nanoliposomes, 216
Nanolithography, 248
Nanomaterials, 6
types of, 215–218, 216–217
Nanomedicines, 412–431
antibacterial, 220, 223–224
anti- cancer, 218, 219, 221–222
anti- diabetic, 219, 226–227
antifungal, 220, 224–225
ant- inammatory, 219, 222–223
biomimetics and bioinspiration, 370
cardioprotective, 227–228
clinical settings, 407–409
future, 409
improved efcacy, 408–409
patient adherence, 408
reduced side effects, 408
critical challenges, 431
emergence of, 393
green design, 370–371
implementation, 397–405
documenting patient case histories, 401–405
dosage and administration strategies, 397, 399
preparation techniques, 397, 398
protocols, 397
nanotoxicological classication system, 427–428
nanotoxicology assessment, 419–427
advanced analytical tools, 424
genetic approaches, 425
grouping/read- across technique, 425
immunotoxicity assays, 425
nano- informatics database, 426
nano- QSAR, 424–425
systems toxicology, 425–426
in vitro carcinogenicity assessment with
transformed cells, 425–426
in vitro models, 421–422
in vivo assays, 422–424
neuroprotective, 225–226
overview, 412–415
safety and toxicological concerns, 415–419
standardized treatment procedures, 405–407
personalization, 406–407
Nanoparticles, 6, 215, 216, 217, 305
attributes, 4
as carriers
for fungicides, 202–203
for herbicides, 203–204
for insecticides, 202
characterization, 250–254
chemical, 251
physical, 251–254
drug delivery, 239–240
advantages, 239–240
dendrimers, 241
ethosomes, 243
magnetic, 240–241
metallic, 240
microspheres, 242
niosomes, 241
phytosomes, 241
polymer, 240
proniosomes, 241
transfersomes, 242
as effective medicine carriers, 460
future prospects, 15
hyperthermia therapy, 6