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94 Herbal Pharmacopeia
through the shikimic acid pathway and frequently found in vegetables and fruits, demonstrates various therapeutic uses for DM prevention [49].
Flavones, which are found in buckwheat, red wine, fruit skins, red pepper, and tomato skin,
exhibit anti- inammatory antiviral, and antimutagenic effects. Similarly, avonols, found in plants
like olive oil, onions, berries, red wine, and grapefruit, show antimutagenic activity and antiviral
effects by disrupting the binding between the ACE2 receptor S and protein, inhibiting virus entry,
and halting viral replication enzymes [53]. Flavanones, such as naringenin and naringin, have potent
antioxidant properties and contribute to the protection of the central nervous system (CNS).
Flavanones, present in citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruits, and lemons, demonstrate antibacterial
and antimutagenic activities [50, 51].
Isoavones, largely derived from beans such as soybeans, demonstrate antibacterial and antimutagenic activity and are considered dietary supplements, although research on their health benets is
limited [51]. Anthocyanidins, which are mainly found in raspberries, cherries, and strawberries, are
prominent plant pigments acknowledged for their health benets against diverse oxidative agents
(Table 5.1). The three main phenylpropanoid alcohols involved in lignin formation are sinapyl,
coniferyl, and coumaryl [52]. Tannins, originally used in tanning hides, are generally toxic to herbivores, reducing their growth and survival when consumed. Found in fruits like blackberries, apples,
red wine, tea, and, tannins are common in woody plants, especially in heartwood. Gallic acid is a
notable derivative of tannins [49, 53].
5.5.2 TerPenes
The largest class of SMs, referred to as terpenoids, comprises a structurally diverse group with more
than 35,000 identied terpenes. Terpenes, generally ammable and insoluble in water, originate
from the combination of ve- carbon atoms forming an isopentane skeleton. Terpenes are modiable
through cyclization reactions into isoprene units, the basic structural elements that make them easily
recognizable. In several signicant plant species, including polypodium, lemon, peppermint, basil,
cotton, sage, corn, and wild tobacco, terpenoids play a crucial defensive role. They are categorized
into various groups based on the quantity of isoprene units [47].
TABLE 5.1
Biological Activities and Herbal Source of Some Common Flavonoids
S# Class Example Activity Plant Source Reference
01 Flavanones Naringenin, Hesperetin,
Homoeriodictyol,
Eriodictyol.
02 Flavonols Galangin, Quercetin,
Myricetin, Kaempferol,
Rhamnazin,
Isorhamnetin.
03 Isoavones Glycitein, Genistein,
Daidzein.
04 Flavones Luteolin, Tangeritin,
Apigenin.
05 Anthocyanidins Peonidin, Cyanidin,
Pelargonidin,
Delphinidin.
Antibacterial and
antimutagenic
Antiviral and
antimutagenic
Antibacterial and
antimutagenic
Anti- inammatory,
antiviral, and
antimutagenic.
Essential plant pigments
play a crucial role in
health by shielding the
body from oxidative
agents.
Lemons and oranges,
Grapefruits, and
Citrus fruits.
Olive oil, Onion,
berries, red wine, and
grapefruit.
Soybean [59, 60]
red pepper, red wine,
fruit skins, tomato
skin, and buckwheat.
Strawberry, Cherry, and
raspberry.
[47, 54, 55]
[56–58]
[61, 62]
[63, 64]
Bioactive Compounds in Herbal Remedies 95
(1): Monoterpenes, composed of two (2) isoprene units are crucial in essential oils (EOs) from
plant families like Pinaceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Rutaceae. Its molecular formula is C10H16 and
they encompass alcohols (e.g., linalool), ketones (e.g., carvone), unsaturated hydrocarbons (e.g.,
limonene), aldehydes (e.g., citronellal), and alcohol esters (e.g., linalyl acetate) [65]. Monoterpenoids,
found in the fragrant oils of many plants and marine organisms, are known for their halogenated
forms in marine life. They are key components of EOs, serving as pollinator attractants and defense
compounds. Additionally, monoterpenoids have potential antioxidant properties and are used in medicines for their antimicrobial, antiseptic, disinfectant, and wound- healing properties [66]. Common
herbal EOs compounds and their chemical structures are represented in Figure 5.2. (2): Sesquiterpenes
are represented by the chemical formula C15H24 and structured with three isoprene units. These are
categorized into three groups: (a) acyclic (e.g., farnesol); (b) monocyclic (e.g., bisabolol); and (c)
bicyclic (e.g., caryophyllene). They all participate in multiple developmental processes, such as
tuberization using antagonism. (3): Diterpenes, composed of four isoprene units (C20H32), are classied as acyclic or macrocyclic compounds. They include vital bioactive compounds like vitamin K1
and A, which are found in medicinal plants [67]. (4): Sesterterpenes are structured with ve isoprene
units (C25H40). (5): Triterpenes are structured with six isoprene units (C30H48). (6): Sesquarterpenes
are made up of seven isoprene units (C35H56). (7): Tetraterpenes consist of eight isoprene units with
the molecular formula C40H64. (8): Polyterpenes are characterized by long chains of multiple iso-
prene units. (9): Norisoprenoids are distinguished by chain shortening through methyl side chain
substitution with hydrogen atoms or methylene group removal [68].
Bornyl acetate exhibits strong antibacterial properties, while camphene is a minor component in
some aromatic EOs and a major one in others like oregano and thymus, known for anticancer, antibacterial, and pulmonary disease treatment benets [69]. Azadirachtin, from neem tree seeds, is a
potent insecticide found in pesticides like azaSol, treeAzin, terramera Cirkil, and azaMax. Pinene,
derived from coniferous trees, is antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti- carcinogenic, anti- inammatory, and
insecticidal. Limonene, from citrus oils, offers antifungal, antibacterial, and food preservation uses
[70, 71]. Saponins, found in asparagus, Allium species, spinach, oats, tea, sweet potato, and sugar
beet possess hypolipidemic properties and can lower lipoprotein, cholesterol levels, and exhibit anticytotoxic antidiabetic and effects [72, 73]. 3-Carene, occurring naturally in aromatic plants like citrus, rosemary, cedar, cannabis, basil, and pine, serves as a avoring agent and food additive in the
food industry [74]. They act as an antimicrobial against food- borne pathogens (both Gram- positive
and Gram- negative) [75]. Some common herbal terpenoids and their structures are represented in
Figure 5.3, and the biological activities of various herbal terpenoids are expressed in Table 5.2.
Steroids are a subclass of terpenoids, biosynthesized from terpene precursors. These organic
compounds have four rings in a specic conguration and are produced by plants, animals, and
microorganisms. Due to their high biological activity, steroids are widely studied in chemistry and
biochemistry and are in high demand for medical use. This drives the synthesis of various steroids in
research and development labs. Steroids are effective in preventing and treating a wide range of diseases, from common infections to severe cancers [76]. Plant steroids are diverse secondary metabolites with important physiological and pharmacological properties. Phytosterols, key components of
plant cell membranes, control permeability and uidity, and exhibit hypocholesterolemic and anticancer activities. They differ from cholesterol by having an alkyl substituent at C- 24, while anolides
have C- 22 and C- 26 oxidized to form γ-lactone [77]. Brassinosteroids are plant hormones crucial for
development, classied based on the number of carbon atoms in their side chain. Steroid alkaloids,
polar compounds effective against insects and pathogens, have a modied steroid skeleton with a
nitrogen atom [76, 78]. Some common steroids and their structures are represented in Figure 5.4.
5.5.3 niTrogen- conTaining comPounds
As a structural component, nitrogen is found in a variety of SMs, including cyanogenic glucosides, alkaloids, and glucosinolates. Alkaloids, a large family of over 15,000 nitrogen- containing
96 Herbal Pharmacopeia
FIGURE 5.2 Common herbal Essential oil (EOs) compounds and their chemical structures.
FIGURE 5.3 Common herbal terpenoids and their chemical structures.
Bioactive Compounds in Herbal Remedies 97
TABLE 5.2
Biological Activities and Herbal Source of Some Common Terpenoids
S# Compound Nature Activity Plant Source Reference
01 Bornyl
acetate
02
α-Pinene
03 Azadirachtin Heterotetracyclic Active component in pesticides
04 Camphene Bicyclic
05 Saponins Triterpene
06 Limonene Cyclic
07 3-Carene Bicyclic
Ester Antibacterial Many plant EOs such as pines,
cedars, spruces, and hemlocks.
monoterpene
(Unsaturated
and bicyclic)
monoterpene
glycosides
momoterpene
monoterpene
anti- inammatory, anti-
carcinogenic, antioxidant, and
antimicrobial.
like AzaMax, Cirkil, AzaSol,
TreeAzin, Terramera, and
insecticidal.
Used in pulmonary disease,
anticancer, and antibacterial.
Hypolipidemic,Reduce level of
lipoprotein and cholesterol, anticarcinogenic, and antidiabetic.
Antifungal, antibacterial, and
food preservation.
Used as a food additive with
antimicrobial properties against
food- borne pathogens.
Many coniferous trees [72, 80]
Azadirachta indica (Seeds of the
neem tree)
a signicant component of
oregano, thyme, and sage
EOs, and a minor component
of numerous aromatic Eos,
including ginger, camphor, and
citronella.
Allium species (asparagus, onion,
garlic), Spinach, tea, oats,
sweet potato, and sugar beet.
Citrus fruit peel oil's primary
ingredient
Citrus, rosemary, cedar, pine,
basil, and cannabis
[69, 79]
[70]
[75, 81]
[73, 82]
[71]
[74]
SMs found in about 20% of vascular plants, are generally alkaline [47]. Alkaloids can be divided
into heterocyclic and non- heterocyclic types and are common in orders like Gentianales, Rosales,
Caryophyllales, and Magnoliales. They exhibit signicant biological properties, including cytotoxic
[83], pharmacological, antiviral, and antimicrobial effects [84]. In plants, alkaloids act as storage
for nitrogen, protection from predators, and regulators of growth. Many alkaloids, such as ephedrine, quinine, and homoharringtonine, are important medicinal agents for treating diseases like DM,
malaria, cardiac dysfunction, and cancer [85].
Morphine, derived from the poppy plant, is a vital alkaloid known for its analgesic, anesthetic, and
anxiety- reducing properties [86]. Ephedrine, derived from Ephedra species, possesses antiinammatory properties and prevents low blood pressure during anesthesia [85]. Quinine, sourced
from Remijia species, is a vital antimalarial medication rst isolated in 1820 and recognized on the
WHO’s List of Essential Medicines [84]. Homoharringtonine, extracted from Cephalotaxus fortunei,
is an important anticancer agent, approved by the FDA for chronic myeloid leukemia and used in
China for over 50 years to treat myeloid leukemias [87]. Chelidonium majus produces chelerythrine,
which possesses antibacterial and anticancer properties, offering the potential for the development of
new anticancer therapies [88]. Piperine, extracted from P. ofcinarum and Piper longum fruits, is uti-
lized as an antihyperglycemic agent [89]. Vinca minor produces vincamine, a vasodilator utilized as a
dietary supplement in the USA and for treating dementia in Europe [90]. Cyanogenic glucosides,
found in over 2500 plant species, defend against herbivores by providing a bitter taste and releasing
toxic hydrogen cyanide when tissue is disrupted. They notably originate from apricots, seeds of bitter
almonds, peaches, almonds, apples, and wine, varying with alcohol concentration, fruit levels, and
temperature [91]. Some common herbal alkaloids and their structures are represented in Figure 5.5.
Furthermore, Table 5.3 displays the biological activity of some herbal alkaloids.
98 Herbal Pharmacopeia
FIGURE 5.4 Common herbal steroids and their chemical structures.
5.6 EXTRACTION OF BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS
Taking into account the extensive diversity of bioactive compounds and the wide variety of plant
species, establishing a standardized and comprehensive strategy to screen out these compounds with
potential health benets is crucial. Extraction is the essential primary phase in studying medicinal
plants, as it is essential to isolate the target chemical components for subsequent separation and
characterization [96]. To extract metabolites, several methods have been developed, including novel,
high- tech methods. The essential steps encompass pre- washing, drying (or freeze- drying), crushing
plant materials for a consistent sample, and improving extraction kinetics by maximizing the contact between the sample’s surface and the solvent. The extract should follow the traditional healer’s
procedures if it is based on traditional applications. It is imperative to maintain the active ingredients
throughout the preparation process [97].
The selection of a solvent system is based on the characteristics of the target bioactive molecule.
Polar solvents like ethanol, methanol, or ethyl- acetate extract hydrophilic compounds, while dichloromethane or a methanol/dichloromethane mixture (1:1) is used for lipophilic compounds [98]. The
extraction method's suitability depends on the range of non- polar to polar and thermally labile target
compounds. Identifying and characterizing compounds in plant extracts, which frequently consist of
a mixture of bioactive compounds with different polarities, presents a considerable challenge.
Various methods like reux heating, sonication, soxhlet extraction, percolation, maceration, and
modern extraction techniques such as supercritical- uid, pressurized- liquid, solid- phase, microwaveassisted, and surfactant- mediated, are used for plant sample extraction [99]. Pure compounds are
frequently isolated to determine their biological activity and structures using methods like Thin
Layer Chromatography (TLC), ash chromatography, column chromatography, High- Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), and Sephadex chromatography. Non- chromatographic methods
Bioactive Compounds in Herbal Remedies 99
FIGURE 5.5 Common herbal alkaloids and their chemical structures.
TABLE 5.3
Biological Activities and Herbal Source of Some Common Alkaloids
S# Compounds Activity Plant Source Reference
01 Vincamine Vasodilatory Vinca minor [90, 92]
02 Morphine Analgesic Papaver somniferum [86, 93]
03 Ephedrine Antiasthma (Anti- inammatory) Ephedra sp. [85]
04 Quinine Antimalarial (Antimicrobial) Remijia sp. [84, 94]
05 Piperine Antihyperglycemic Fruits of Piper longum and Piper ofcinarum [89]
06 Homoharringtonine Anticancer activity Cephalotaxus fortunei [87, 95]
07 Chelerythrine Antimicrobial Chelidonium majus [88]
like immunoassay with monoclonal antibodies, Fourier- transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR),
and phytochemical screening assays also assist in identifying bioactive compounds [100]. For the
extraction of plant material, these techniques improve extraction efciency, selectivity, and automation ease by reducing solvent consumption, the degradation of the sample, and the elimination of
additional clean- up steps [101].
5.7 ROLE OF HERBS IN DRUG DISCOVERY
Since ancient times, medicinal plants have been utilized in all cultures. Originally employed to
fulll nutritional needs, they have become essential for health improvement and disease treatment.
Various plant species are still used in parts of South America, Asia, and Africa for remedies [102].
Many biologically active plant species remain undiscovered, even though the WHO reports that
traditional medicine, especially herbal medications, is the primary healthcare for 60% of the world’s
100 Herbal Pharmacopeia
population and is essential for the development of modern medicine [103]. Traditional medicines
based on generations of experience, including herbal products, organic matter, and minerals, are
widely accepted for their compatibility with the human body, fewer side effects, and cultural acceptance. Primary healthcare is provided by traditional medicine made from more than 35,000 plant
species approximately 80% of the world’s population [104].
Ethnomedicinal studies are essential for nding new therapeutics from medicinal plants. The
chemical diversity, specic activities, and unique mechanisms of green pharmaceuticals are making
them increasingly attractive. Unlike synthetic drugs, which often have unforeseen side effects,
herbal medicines are considered safer and offer additional benets from their medicinal constituents, minerals, and vitamins. This has shifted scientic focus towards ethnomedicines, increasing
the demand for herbal medicines and natural products worldwide [105]. Ethnobotany, the study of
traditional knowledge about medicinal plants, is largely responsible for developing modern medications. Approximately 25% of modern pharmacopeia drugs and many synthetic analogs are plantderived. Promising treatments for infectious diseases can be obtained from approximately 78% of
newly developed chemical ingredients, whether or not they are derived from natural materials.
Plants have been essential in medicine for thousands of years, with signicant discoveries like morphine, quinine, codeine, cocaine, and digitoxin still in use [84, 86]. Advances in genome sequencing
continue to reveal new drug targets from medicinal plants [32].
Several medicinal plant extracts, such as those containing antifungal proteins like glucanase and
chitinase, effectively combat microbial and parasitic infections, protecting developing embryos
[106]. Pakistan’s rich botanical diversity includes an estimated 400–600 medicinal plant species out
of 5700, yet only a small fraction has been subjected to biochemical study. Historically, 84% of
Pakistan's population relied on traditional medicines for basic healthcare; this is now largely limited
mainly to remote areas due to modernization. Despite efforts to document Indigenous medicinal
plants, comprehensive information remains incomplete [107].
5.8 GLOBAL TRADE OF HERBAL MEDICINES
In the pharmaceutical sector, medicinal herbs are now pivotal exports, available in diverse forms such as
fruits, bark, tubers, owers, roots, leaves, seeds, and extracts, contributing signicantly to international
trade for both developed and developing nations [108]. For medical care, over 75% of people worldwide use herbal remedies, particularly in developing countries where they are accepted culturally, they
have few adverse effects, and are physiologically compatible with the human body. The FDA's adjustments to regulations on herbal supplements have driven substantial expansion in the herbal products
market. Consumers increasingly prefer herbal medicines because of their fewer adverse effects when
compared with modern remedies, and also their trusted reputation for safety. These medications offer
excellent treatment for specic disorders and are a good substitute for preventive healthcare [109].
The global herbal products market is valued at around $83 billion annually, with demand growing
at 5 to 15% per year according to the World Bank [110]. In the European Union, the herbal market
surpasses $20 billion, with notable sales in Germany ($3 billion), Japan ($1.5 billion), France ($1.6
billion), and Italy ($0.6 billion) [111]. Herbal essences are recognized as prescribed medications by
national health insurance programs in Germany and France. Between 2004 and 2012, the worldwide
pharmaceutical market expanded from $550 billion to $900 billion. About $10 billion is spent on
herbal products in India each year, with $1.1 billion of those exports being made up mostly of traditional Ayurvedic products [112]. China exports $3.6 billion of its annual herbal commerce, worth
around $48 billion. The European herbal products market was estimated at $7 billion in 1997, with
Germany leading the way at $3.5 billion. In 1995, India shipped 32,600 tons of raw pharmaceuticals
worth $46 million, while China exported 120,000 tons worth $264.5 million. The global herbal
market is currently valued at over $250 billion, with the value of TCM products surpassing
$400 billion in 2010. The herbal remedy is also a necessary component of the bulk of modern formulations intended to lower mental disease and hypertension [113, 114].
Bioactive Compounds in Herbal Remedies 101
5.9 EFFECTS OF HERBS AND THEIR BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS
IN HUMAN HEALTHCARE
Bioactive compounds in herbs are naturally occurring chemicals that offer health benets and play
a signicant role in alternative and traditional medicine. Recently, herbal bioactive compounds have
garnered interest for their potential to improve health and manage conditions like DM, cancer, and
cardiovascular disorders (Table 5.4) [18]. Derived from the Greek "bios" (life) and the Latin "activus" (active), these bioactive compounds, both essential and nonessential, can inuence human
health. Plant bioactive substances are SMs that can affect an animal’s or human’s physiology or
TABLE 5.4
General Bioactivities of Various Herbal Medicinal Plants
S# Plant Name Mechanism/Bioactivity References
01 Azadirachta indica Constipation, leprosy, respiratory disorders, helminthiasis, and skin
infections.
02 Angelica keiskei Hypertension and coronary heart disease. [119]
03 Bauhinia variegata Dysentery, malaria, ulcers, skin ailments, leprosy, tuberculosis, and
snakebite.
04 Bacopa monnieri Damaged nerve cell repair, antistress, action of kinase enzyme,
transmission of neural impulse, improve synaptic impulse transmission,
and increase memory.
05 Curcumin Immunomodulatory, anti- inammatory, anti- angiogenic, anti- mutagenic,
neuroprotective, and wound healing.
06 Euphorbia hirta Worm infestation, asthma, diuretic, inammation, scavenging activity,
respiratory tract infection, coughs, purgative, sore, and wound healing.
07 Fraxinus hookeri pneumonia and typhoid fever. [124, 125]
08 Garcinia xanthochymus Prostaglandin E2 and cyclooxygenase inhibition. [126]
09 Hoslundia opposita Sore throats, venereal diseases, epilepsy, fever, anti- bacterial, antiseptic,
purgative, diuretic, and febrifuge.
10 Lycium barbarum Hepatitis, hyperlipidemia, male infertility, cancer, thrombosis, hypo-
immunity, and anti- aging.
11 Murraya koenigii Swollen hemorrhoids, amoebiasis, intestinal inammation, hepatitis, fresh
cuts, pruritus, DM, nausea, burses, oedema, and snakebite.
12 Nerium oleander Diaphoretic, warts, cancerous, abdomen pain, hyperglycemic, and
cardiotonic.
13 Ocimum sanctum Scavenging, anti- asthmatic, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic,
expectorant, anticancer, and anti- fertility.
14 Polygonum bistorta Demulcent, laxative, cholera, bowel syndrome, ulcer colitis, astringent,
peptic ulcers, styptic, bleeding, diuretic, and menstruation.
15 Randia dumetorum Piles, demulcent, diarrhea, gonorrhea, diuretic, asthma, antidysenteric,
and emetic.
16 Selaginella lepidophylla Immunomodulating, antiallergic, anti- viral, antiphlogostic, anti-
hepatotoxic, cytotoxic antitumor, and anti- fungal.
17 Terminalia chebula Renoprotective, antioxidant, anti- bacterial, adaptogenic, anticancer,
antiviral, antidiabetic, and radioprotective.
18 Urtica diocia Urticaria, eczema, prostatic hypertrophy, alopecia, allergic rhinitis, and gout. [136]
19 Withania somnifera Lung inammations, immunomodulatory, arthritis, anticancer,
radiosensitizing, thyro- regulatory, anti- aging, anti- inammatory,
anxiolytic, dropsy, and cardiotonic.
20 Xanthium strumarium Leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, herpes, scrofula bladder infections, diaphoretic,
renal complaints, CNS depressant, and inammatory swellings.
21 Ziziphora tenuior uterus infection, vomiting, dysentery, gastrointestinal, fever, and diarrhea. [139]
[118]
[120]
[121]
[122]
[123]
[127]
[128]
[129]
[130]
[131]
[132]
[133]
[134]
[135]
[137]
[138]
102 Herbal Pharmacopeia
toxicity [115]. Present in various plant parts like roots, owers, and leaves, they often exist in trace
amounts and may require extraction to isolate the desired compounds. Compounds like chromones,
avanones, and steroids from Viscum coloratum inhibit superoxide anion production by neutro-
phils [116]. Plant phenolic compounds are popular for their health advantages and bioactive characteristics, with increased consumption recommended for preventive health. Signicant antioxidant
properties are attributed to chlorophyll, and parthenolide and other metabolites have been shown to
decrease human blood platelet activity. Traditional medicine uses a variety of plant components to
treat a wide range of illnesses, including fevers, diarrhea, ulcers, wounds, cholera, and mental disorders. However, challenges such as plant identication, mechanism of action, chemical composition,
toxicity, dosage, and cost limit the use and widespread adoption of herbal preparations [117].
5.9.1 herbal comPounds for The human immune sysTem
Diverse solvent compounds/extracts from herbal components increase the generation of antibodies
by stimulating human T- lymphocytes, neutrophils, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs),
and Jurkat (JKT) cells (Table 5.5) [140]. For optimal health, both innate and acquired immunities play a vital role as the immune system targets infectious pathogens or foreign antigens. Even
minor deciencies in either type of immunity can cause substantial problems in infection prevention. First- line infection protection is provided by non- specic/innate immunity, but the adaptive
immune response, which involves antibodies, lymphocytes, and other molecules, possesses two
essential features: memory and specicity [141]. Innate immunity contains various components
that resist specic pathogens through cellular and molecular recognition. This system eliminates
some pathogens, and evolutionary innovations have led to adaptive immune responses. Enhancing
immune function is vital to controlling epidemic diseases, as immunological dysfunction is a major
factor in the emergence of diseases like cancer, respiratory issues, and allergies [142].
Splenocytes and lymphocytes play an integral role in acquired immunity because they are either
directly or indirectly engaged in the manufacture of antibodies. They have acid phosphatases, which
help kill bacteria and their antigens. Lymphocytes, derived from bone marrow via hematopoiesis,
circulate through the blood and lymphatic systems, utilizing surface receptors to confer diversity,
immune specicity, memory, and the ability to distinguish self from non- self. T and B lymphocytes
are the two primary types of lymphocytes. T cells secrete lymphokines that protect against cancer,
microbes, and type IV hypersensitivity reactions, hence mediating cell- mediated protection [143].
IgG and IgM, two key antibody molecules required for humoral immune responses, are produced by
TABLE 5.5
Different Herbal Plants Promote the Enhancement of Human Immune Cells
and Antibody Production
S# Plant Name Mechanism/Bioactivity References
01 Andrographis paniculata Increased antibody production. [150]
02 Baliospermum montanum Chemotactic, phagocytosis, and neutrophils killing intracellular potency. [151]
03 Calendula arvensis Immunomodulation of T- lymphocytes. [152]
04 Glebionis coronaria Cytotoxicity. [153]
05 Inula crithmoides Immunomodulation of T- lymphocytes. [154]
06 Rhinacanthus nasutus Increased antibody. [155]
07 Tripterygium wilfordii Immunosuppression of T- cell proliferation [156]
08 Bauhinia variegata Enhance neutrophils, and antibody. [120]
09 Citrus aurantifolia Activation of mononuclear cells. [157]
10 Gymnema sylvestre Chemotaxis, neutrophils, and phagocytosis. [158]
Bioactive Compounds in Herbal Remedies 103
B- lymphocytes and plasma cells. These immunoglobulins regulate complement activation, the
opsonization of microorganisms, and the neutralization of toxins. B- lymphocytes recognize antigens via surface receptors, leading to antigen processing and presentation to TH2 cells via MHC
class II. This initiates clonal expansion, resulting in memory cell formation and differentiation into
antibody- secreting plasma cells. Secondary immune responses typically show a shift from initial
IgM secretion to a predominant IgG production against recurring antigens [144].
Efcient phagocyte activity in innate immunity, led by macrophages and neutrophils, eliminates
microorganisms and dead cells, acting as the initial defense against infections and regulating immune
functions. Neutrophils and macrophages are pivotal in host defense, utilizing phagocytosis to combat infections and regulate immune responses, while their oxidative metabolism generates ROS
crucial for intracellular killing, conrming their role as primary defenders against foreign invaders.
In addition to neutrophils, eosinophils, and natural killer cells, macrophages are essential components of both specic and nonspecic defensive systems against toxins and microorganisms [145].
Their activation states affect the course of disease by intimately interacting with T- and B- lymphocytes
to initiate adaptive immune responses. They also maintain tissue balance by recognizing, engulng,
and neutralizing pathogens. During injury, macrophages capture pathogens and collaborate with
other immune cells to produce antibodies and orchestrate cell- mediated immunity, while also releasing ROS, cytokines, NO, and lipid mediators crucial for effective inammatory responses [146].
An immunomodulator alters immune system components to induce either immunostimulation or
immunosuppression effects, enhancing complement proteins, granulocytes, NK cells, activated lymphocytes, and macrophages to produce effector molecules. Unlike drugs which target single receptors, immunomodulators can activate both pathways simultaneously, aiming to enhance immune
responses (immunostimulatory therapy) by boosting macrophages, granulocytes, T- lymphocytes,
complement proteins, and effector substances. Conversely, immunosuppression reduces immune
resistance. Both aspects are crucial for normal immune function and disease management. Ayurveda’s
“Rasayana” emphasizes immunomodulatory activities, driving the search for effective immunotherapeutic agents [147, 148].
Evidence suggests that plant- based substances possess immunomodulatory properties that
improve innate immune responses. Immunomodulatory agents, encompassing both immunostimulatory and immunosuppressive effects, are vital for regulating normal immune function and adapting
to pathological conditions. Natural compounds provide an alternative approach to conventional chemotherapy for the treatment of many diseases. Medicinal plants are highly rich in compounds that
modulate the immune system, especially by activating NK cells, granulocytes, and macrophages,
enhancing complement functions and immunity [149].
5.9.2 bioacTive comPounds in herbs for cancer TreaTmenT
Worldwide, people are impacted by a range of malignant cancers. Despite the wide range of treatments available, such as immunotherapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery their harmful
side effects frequently cause harm to patients and prevent efforts to control cancer. Plant metabolites, long utilized in medical treatments for millennia, are now emerging as new leads for anticancer
drug development. Plants have long been employed in medicine; they are the source of over 60% of
treatments for cancer and roughly 25% of all modern drugs. This highlights the need for new, more
effective cancer treatments that are less toxic, and it suggests that plant- derived metabolites could
be a source of these drugs [159].
Numerous plant extracts have demonstrated potential bioactivities, some of which are represented in Table 5.6. A. pilosa root aqueous extract protects against cytotoxicity to hepatic cells. The
hydroalcoholic extract of Ebenus boissieri has the ability to suppress cell proliferation, enhance
caspase activity, and elevate IFN- γ and TNF- α levels in MDA- MB231 cells, indicating that it may
have potential anti- tumor effects on breast cancer cells. In vitro, the rhizome of A. ofcinarum exhibits anti- inammatory qualities, whereas the growth of cancers (lung, breast, and colon) is inhibited