compliance of the treatment regimens especially compounded by the complex nature of the tradi­tional herbal preparation dosage (Ambwani et al., 2018; Onyeji, 2022). This has also been made possible by the development of nano- sized herbal drug systems because the physicochemical barri­ers hampering the effectiveness of herbal remedies are also well addressed by this invention. A majority of the herbal constituents have been shown to be of low aqueous solubility and high molec­ular weights and thus cannot easily diffuse across biological membranes. These compounds, when formulated using nanotechnology, can be delivered in the form of nanoparticles that could easily cross lipid membranes and therefore augment their bioavailability (Kesarwani & Gupta, 2013; Azzahra et al., 2020). For instance, ethosomes and transfersomes are suggested to be a better method of transdermal delivery of herbal drugs, leading to better absorptive ability through the skin and a better response from the drugs (Chen et al., 2022; Rahman et al., 2020). Moreover, the application of nanocarriers in the system of herbal drug delivery enable the controlled and prolonged releases of the drug. This slow release is benecial for the constant release of therapeutic drugs and regular upkeep of their blood concentration, thereby increasing patient compliance, especially in the context of compound chronic diseases (Jalali, 2022; Razavi, 2024). It is also possible to control the physi­cochemical properties of these nanocarriers so that they only release the herbal compounds at the desired site and time in response to some physiological stimuli such as pH or temperature (Bonifácio et al., 2013; Ansari et al., 2012). Indeed, nanotechnology is used in the improvement of the bioavail­ability of the active ingredients, controlled release and reduction of toxicity levels as associated with herbal medicines. The problem with these compounds is that they have several adverse effects. However, when herbal extracts are enclosed in nanoparticles, which are biocompatible and biode­gradable, several of these issues are mostly likely to be avoided. This is specically the case with plant extracts as these too may possess powerful biological effects, but are equally likely to cause toxicity when given in large doses (Darji et al., 2022; Wani et al., 2015). One advantage that is coupled with NDDS is the potential to give smaller concentrations of the active pharmaceutical ingredients but to give cure dosages. Furthermore, advances in technology has seen nanotechnology incorporated into the herbal medicine, which has provided a way through which diseases can be treated. Because the interaction between nanoparticles and tissues or cells depends on surface chem­istry, researchers can modify the surface chemistry of nanoparticles so as to have a higher afnity to certain tissues or cells, thus enabling pharmacists to deliver herbal drugs to the desired location, such as tumors or inamed tissues (Marella & Prasad, 2018; Gunasekaran et al., 2014). It also increases the therapeutic effectiveness and therapeutic window of the herbal medicine while mini­mizing the occurrence of systemic side effects and related risks to patients, thereby increasing patients’ safety (Metkari, 2023; Gopi & Amalraj, 2016). The following are some of the real- life examples of nanotechnology in herbal drug delivery: Route of administration here also plays a sig­nicant role, the common routes being oral, transdermal and intravenous. Every route has its advan­tages and problems in terms of the improvement of delivery of the herbal products. For instance, oral delivery systems can be designed to protect herbal compounds from degradation in the gastrointes­tinal tract, while transdermal systems can facilitate the direct absorption of active ingredients through the skin (Arsude, 2023). Nanogels, and especially nanoemulsions have demonstrated improvements in stability and bioavailability of herbal formulations for numerous therapeutic uses (Alharbi et al., 2021).

and nutraceutical delivery. The eld of polymeric nanoparticles is rapidly evolving as scientists con­tinue to explore the potential of these innovative materials. We can expect to see even more exciting advancements in drug delivery in the years to come (Begines et al., 2020).