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Herbal Pharmacopeia
This book comprehensively explores the intersection between traditional herbal medicine and
cutting- edge nanotechnology. The chapters introduce modern techniques used in herbal extraction
and analysis. The principles of drug discovery from plants are discussed, with a focus on the identication and development of bioactive compounds that have therapeutic potential. It discusses the
pharmacological properties, biotechnological approaches in drug development, and challenges in
the formulation and standardization of herbal medicines. Emerging trends and applications of nanotechnology in herbal pharmacotherapy, such as nanoparticle synthesis, enhanced bioavailability
using nanocarriers, safety assessments, novel and targeted delivery systems, and regulatory considerations, are thoroughly discussed. Additionally, it includes a comparative analysis of traditional
and nano- formulated approaches and their implementation in clinical settings. Towards the end, the
book reviews the regulatory considerations for herbal products and future perspectives in herbal
pharmacopeia. This book is intended for researchers, clinicians, and professionals in herbal medicine, pharmacology, and nanotechnology.
Dr. Arshad Farid currently serves as an Assistant Professor in the Gomal Center of Biochemistry
and Biotechnology, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, Pakistan. He has approximately 17 years of teaching and research experience and has supervised 13 MPhil. research students while mentoring numerous PhD candidates. Farid has more than 100+ publications of international and national repute, the
total cumulative impact factor of his published papers being 450+. His scientic activities are highly
interdisciplinary, ranging from medicinal plants, natural product chemistry, herbal drug development, and ethnopharmacology to nanotechnology, drug delivery, and microbiology. He has served
as the editor for six books accepted for publication and has written more than 50 book chapters for
various publishers. With a notable count of 27 international patents (Germany, UK, Japan, and South
Africa etc.), he has published more than 15 abstracts in national and international conference proceedings and has contributed signicantly to the scientic community by peer-reviewing for more
than 30 esteemed journals.
In 2023, Dr. Farid was a fellow of the British Council-Charles Wallace Fellowship program at the
University of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK. Prior to that, in 2007, he received a fellowship for “Training
in the Environmental, Agricultural, and Analytical Chemistry Laboratory Techniques” from the
Department of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK. He is a Research Fellow of
INTI International University.
Herbal Pharmacopeia
Nanotechnology and Advancing Drug Discovery
Edited by
Arshad Farid
First edition published 2025
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2025 selection and editorial matter, Arshad Farid; individual chapters, the contributors
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to
trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identication
and explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-89288-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-89289-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-54441-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003544418
Typeset in Times
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Herbal Pharmacopeia...........................................................................1
Kushagra Sharma, Kondle Ravi, Ab Waheed Wani, Sanjeev Kumar,
and Shuja Qureshi
Chapter 2 Historical Development of Herbal Medicine .............................................................19
Roomah Javed, Maria Faraz, Arshad Farid, and Samy Selim
Chapter 3 Modern Techniques in Herbal Extraction and Analysis .............................................36
Sadaf Javaria, Muhammad Zareef, and Muhammad Nadeem
Chapter 4 Principles of Drug Discovery from Plants..................................................................65
Sayyeda Sabahat Babar, Zarghoona Jawad, Fatima Ayub,
and Muhammad Imran Khan
Chapter 5 Bioactive Compounds in Herbal Remedies ................................................................89
Raheela Sarwar, Muhammad Maisam, Muhammad Waseem Khan,
Youngbo Xue, and Said Hassan
Chapter 6 Pharmacological Properties of Herbal Drugs ........................................................... 122
Maria Faraz, Iftikhar Ahmad, Roomah Javed, Sohail Ahmad, Arshad Farid,
and Samy Selim
Chapter 7 Biotechnological Approaches for Herbal Drug Discovery ....................................... 145
Sohail Ahmad, Maria Faraz, Iftikhar Ahmad, Arshad Farid, and Samy Selim
Chapter 8 Herbal Formulation Development and Standardization ...........................................166
Rabiya Rashid, Sanjeev Kumar, Ab Waheed Wani, Anis Ahmad Mirza,
Bilal Ah Bhat, and Zarina
Chapter 9 Emerging Trends in Herbal Nanotechnology ........................................................... 188
Muhammad Sirab Khan, Muhammad Mudasar Aslam, Nida Khan,
Maha Rehman, and Nazneen Akhtar
Chapter 10 Applications of Nanotechnology in Herbal Pharmacology ......................................213
Jyoti Rani, Deepak Beniwal, Sahil Dhull, Vibhuti Gulia,
Mukul Machhindra Barwant, and Balwant Singh
v
vi Contents
Chapter 11 Nanoparticle Synthesis and Characterization for Herbal Drug Delivery .................238
Kashmala Khalid, Muhammad Abdullah Aziz, Sana Saleem,
Arshad Farid, Fati Ullah Khan, and Haza Sehrish Kiani
Chapter 12 Enhanced Bioavailability of Herbal Extracts Using Nanocarriers ...........................257
Marij Noor, Amina Khalid, Muhammad Umair, Tooba Khan,
and Muhammad Imran Khan
Chapter 13 Herbal Medicine and Neurological Diseases ...........................................................287
Sunil Kumar Kadiri, Prashant Tiwari, Samaresh Pal Roy,
and Suchismita Bhowmik
Chapter 14 Safety Assessment of Nanoparticle-Based Herbal Formulations ............................. 305
Haris Khan, Sumiya Mustafa Alvi, Muhammad Ibrahim Khan,
Hazrat Nabi, and Muhammad Imran Khan
Chapter 15 Novel Drug Delivery Methods for Herbal Medicine ................................................ 331
Mukul Machhindra Barwant, Odangowei Inetiminebi Ogidi,
Shreya Singh, and Balwant Singh
Chapter 16 Targeted Delivery Systems for Herbal Drugs ...........................................................345
Rizwan Ullah Khan, Syeda Pakeeza Fatima Naqvi, Yubao Chen,
and Sohail Ahmad
Chapter 17 Nanotechnology-Enhanced Delivery of Herbal Extract: Formulation,
Preclinical and Clinical Efciency ........................................................................... 367
Mukul Machhindra Barwant, Shreya Singh, Balwant Singh,
Shalagha Ab Sharma, and Odangowei Inetiminebi Ogidi
Chapter 18 Comparative Analysis of Traditional and Nano-Formulated Approaches
in Viability, Targeted Delivery, and Patient Outcomes ............................................. 375
J. Nithya Shree, A. Ronaldo Anuf, and Sohail Ahmad
Chapter 19 Implementing Herbal Nanomedicine in Clinical Settings with Patient
Care Histories Treatment Protocols and Observed Benets .................................... 393
Saleem Ur Rahman, Asma Zahoor, Mashaal Nageen, Afsheen Tajummal,
Ehtisham Shaque, Nasir Ali, and Farakh Javed
Chapter 20 Safety Proles and Potential Toxicological Concerns of Herbal Nanomedicine ..... 412
Sutapa Biswas Majee, Rachayeeta Bera, Dhruti Avlani, Ushasi Das,
and Sudarshan Singh
Contents vii
Chapter 21 Regulatory Considerations for Herbal Products ....................................................... 440
Saleem Ur Rahman, Ehtisham Shaque, Afsheen Tajummal,
Mashaal Nageen, Asma Zahoor, Nasir Ali, and Farakh Javed
Chapter 22 Present Challenges and Future Perspective of the Herbal Drug Industry ................458
Mehtab Yasmeen, Mukul Machhindra Barwant, Balwant Singh,
and Odangowei Inetiminebi Ogidi
Index .............................................................................................................................................. 468
Introduction to Herbal
1
Pharmacopeia
Kushagra Sharma
Department of Horticulture, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya,
Jabalpur, India
Kondle Ravi, Ab Waheed Wani, and Sanjeev Kumar
Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara, India
Shuja Qureshi
KVK Ganderbal, SKUAST- Kashmir, Kashmir, India
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The integration of herbal remedies into contemporary medicine underscores a profound and enduring relationship between human health and plant- based therapies. Modern pharmacopoeias, meticulously crafted to standardize medicinal products, encompass both synthetic and natural substances
[1]. Among the notable herbal pharmacopoeias are the Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia (IHP), the
Korean Herbal Pharmacopoeia (KHP), the American Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AHP) and the British
Herbal Pharmacopoeia (BHP). Each of these resources offers detailed and rigorously reviewed
monographs on a diverse range of botanicals, including Ayurvedic, Chinese, and Western herbs. For
instance, the AHP provides an extensive repository of information on herbal medicines, serving as
an indispensable reference for academics, healthcare professionals, manufacturers, and regulators
[2]. Herbal medicines are a vital component of primary healthcare worldwide, with around 80% of
the global population depending on them for various health- related needs, as reported by the World
Health Organization (WHO) [3]. This reliance reects the swift expansion of the phytopharmaceutical industry, particularly within the dietary supplement market. Despite this growth, many supplements suffer from inadequate research and variable quality.
The relationship between traditional herbal practices and modern therapeutic applications is signicant. Of the 120 active compounds extracted from plants and employed in current medical treatments, 80% show a strong alignment with their traditional uses [4]. Usage statistics reveal that
herbal medicines are widely embraced across different regions: over 90% of individuals in Africa,
70% in India, and signicant percentages in Germany, Australia, Canada, the United States, Belgium,
and France use herbal remedies to meet their healthcare needs [5]. Economically, herbal medicines
present a compelling alternative to synthetic drugs. Developing a new synthetic drug generally takes
about 12 years and can cost roughly $230 million. In contrast, the research and development of
herbal medicines tend to be faster and more cost- effective. The global market for herbal medicines
is experiencing rapid growth, with an annual increase of over 15%, and it is projected that the trade
in herbal products in the United States will reach $70 billion by 2050 [6].
Countries in the developing world, which are rich in plant species with medicinal properties, play
a crucial role in this eld. It is estimated that around 35,000 plant species have medicinal uses, with
over 7,000 compounds in modern pharmacopoeia originating from these plants. The WHO denes
1
2 Herbal Pharmacopeia
herbs as crude plant materials used in various forms and recognizes herbal medicines as preparations
and mixtures derived from these plant materials [7].
The emergence of nanomedicine has brought revolutionary advancements to the eld, enabling
the manipulation of nanoparticles for drug development. Nanotechnology, involving particles
smaller than 100 nanometers, offers new opportunities for addressing challenges in medicine and
pharmacy. This technology enables the exact control of atoms and molecules, resulting in the creation of innovative materials and systems with distinctive properties. Recent advancements in herbal
technology showcase a rened combination of traditional knowledge and modern scientic methods
[8]. Precision farming and controlled environments optimize the cultivation of medicinal herbs,
while nanocarriers improve the targeted delivery of herbal extracts. The incorporation of articial
intelligence further speeds up drug discovery from herbal sources. This merging of ancient wisdom
with advanced science marks a new era in the development of potent herbal products and medicines,
ready to tackle current health challenges with enhanced effectiveness and understanding [3].
1.2 THE EVOLUTION OF HERBAL MEDICINE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Herbal medicine, as articulated in the ancient Chandogya Upanishad—“The essence of all beings
is Earth. The essence of the Earth is Water. The essence of Water is Plants. The essence of Plants
is the Human Being”—has historically unfolded along two primary trajectories. The rst trajectory
represents a tradition of simplicity where community- based practitioners, including folk healers
and familial custodians of herbal knowledge, employed medicinal plants to provide care [9]. These
practitioners, who often held a profound understanding of local ora, have played a crucial role in
maintaining health and wellness within their communities through generations. The second pathway
includes the professional medical practitioners of ancient times, who were often among the most
educated scholars of their era. This path is well recorded in foundational texts such as Dioscorides’
De Materia Medica and the Hippocratic Corpus from Greece, India’s Charaka Samhita, China’s
Shen Nong Ben Cao, and Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine from Persia. During the Renaissance, herbal
medicine was further advanced by prominent gures such as Fuchs, Gerard, Mattioli, Parkinson, and
Salmon [10]. These established medical traditions were closely linked with sophisticated concepts of
anatomy, physiology, and pathology. On the other hand, folk healing practices were rooted in hands on experience and collective community knowledge. While early Western medicine, shaped by the
humoral theories of Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna, has progressed and moved away from these
old frameworks, the core principles of Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine have remained steadfast.
Both systems maintain that humans are an integral part of nature and continue to evolve while adhering to their historical principles, reecting a harmonious alignment with natural processes for healing.
1.3 DIVERSITY OF HERBAL PHARMACOPOEIAS ACROSS THE GLOBE
Traditional medicines have been used worldwide for millennia, providing critical therapeutic
resources to nearly 85% of the global population and contributing substantially to contemporary
healthcare. These ancient remedies remain inuential in drug discovery, with around 46% of newly
approved drugs between 1981 and 2019 either sourced from, or inspired by, natural products [11].
During the COVID- 19 pandemic, traditional Chinese medicines played a signicant role in alleviating symptoms, slowing disease progression, and decreasing both mortality and recurrence rates.
Currently, there are over 60 recognized pharmacopoeias globally, with 42 of them (70%) including
documentation of herbs or natural products [12].
1.3.1 The IndIan PharmacoPoeIa (IP)
The Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) is the ofcial benchmark for drug quality in India. Created by the
Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC), which operates under the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare of the Government of India, the IP sets forth criteria for the identity, purity, and potency of
Introduction to Herbal Pharmacopeia 3
pharmaceuticals in order to guarantee their quality. The IP is periodically updated with addenda to
incorporate urgent revisions and new entries, and these updates are considered as authoritative as
the main version of the IP.
The roots of the Intellectual Property (IP) can be traced to the 1844 publication of the Bengal
Pharmacopoeia and General Conspectus of Medicinal Plants. This work concentrated on native
drugs but also featured certain European remedies. India’s inaugural ofcial pharmacopoeia was
issued in 1868, blending components from the 1867 British Pharmacopoeia with indigenous medicines [13]. After India gained independence, the Indian Pharmacopoeia Committee was established
in 1948, and it published the rst edition of the Indian Pharmacopoeia in 1955.
1.3.2 The euroPean PharmacoPoeIa (Ph. eur.)
The European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) characterizes a herbal drug as an entire, fragmented,
or cut plant or its parts, encompassing algae, fungi, or lichens, in its natural state, which is usually dried but can occasionally be fresh [11]. It also covers specic exudates that have not been
subject to particular processing. Founded in 1964 through the Convention on the Elaboration of
a European Pharmacopoeia under the Council of Europe, the Ph. Eur. sets quality standards for
the production and regulation of medicines across Europe and has an impact on other nations,
including Moldova [9]. The 11th edition, effective from January 1, 2023, is the latest, although
the 10th edition was used in this review due to availability constraints [14]. The Ph. Eur. has
expanded its reach, with Moldova joining the Convention in 2017 and countries such as India,
Japan, and Uzbekistan becoming observer states, demonstrating its ongoing relevance and
dynamism.
In the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.), herbal medicines are identied using a binomial
nomenclature system that includes botanical scientic names [11]. The initial term species the
genus, species, or variety, while the second term describes the type of plant part, such as
underground parts (e.g., radix, rhizome, tubera, bulbus), bark (cortex), or aerial parts (e.g.,
herba, folium, os, fructus, pseudofructus, pericarpium, semen, seminis tegumentum, gemmae).
The 10th edition of the Ph. Eur. features more than 2,500 monographs and around 370 general
texts [13]. This includes six general monographs (e.g., herbal drugs, herbal drug extracts, essential oils), 27 general texts (e.g., pesticides, heavy metals in herbal drugs, High performance thin
layer chromatography (HPTLC) of herbal drugs and preparations), and 315 individual monographs [15].
1.3.3 unITed STaTeS PharmacoPoeIa (uSP)
The United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) is a self- governing, scientic, nonprot entity committed to advancing public health by setting public standards. Its goal is to enhance global health by
guaranteeing the quality, safety, and effectiveness of medicines and food products [12]. Within the
Dietary Supplements section (Volume 3) of the USP, there are detailed monographs for herbal drugs
[7]. These monographs adhere to established nomenclature and quality control protocols, listing
herbal drug names in English and their scientic names in Latin, and specifying the minimum content of quantied constituents when relevant [16].
1.3.4 The ruSSIan FederaTIon’S STaTe PharmacoPoeIa (SPrF)
The 14th edition of the State Pharmacopoeia of the Russian Federation (SPRF), introduced in 2018,
includes 107 monographs detailing medicinal plants [15]. This edition adds 25 new monographs and
eliminates one from the 11th edition. It also covers plants which are not indigenous to Russia, which
do not have a traditional usage history, or which are commonly used in Western medicine [17]. Each
SPRF monograph presents the name of the herbal drug in both Russian and Latin. The Russian name
is given rst, followed by the Latin name, which is in the plural form.