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preceded by a prex that has lost its meaning, e.g. ˋimport, beˋfore.
Recessive tendency – the tendency which consists in gradual shifting of word
accent to the rst syllable (which is usually the root of the word).
Reciprocal assimilation – bilateral assimilation, when the neighbouring sounds
are equally affected by assimilation. For example, in the word twice /t/ is labialized
under the inuence of /w/, and /w/ in its turn is devoiced under the inuence of /t/.
Reduced vowel – a weakened vowel; a vowel that is pronounced with a
noncontrasting centralized quality, although in the underlying form of a word it is part
of a full set of contrasts. The second vowel in emphasis is a reduced form of the vowel
/ӕ/, as in emphatic.
Reduction – weakening (either qualitative or quantitative) of vowels in unstressed
positions.
Regressive assimilation – the process when the second of the neighbouring sounds
inuences the rst and makes it similar to it. For example, in the combination in the /n/
is regressively assimilated by /ð/ and becomes dental and is pronounced with the tip
of the tongue against the upper teeth (its free variant is pronounced with the tip of the
tongue against the teethridge).
Relative sonority theory, or the prominence theory – It was created by O.
Jespersen. It considers that sounds tend to group themselves according to their sonority.
Pronounced with uniform force, length and pitch, speech sounds differ in sonority
(prominence, audibility or carrying power). The most sonorous sounds are vowels, less
sonorous are sonorants /w, j, r, m, n, ŋ/ and the least sonorous are noise consonants.
Resonator mechanism – a group of speech organs which can change their shape
and volume, thus forming the spectral component of the sound, it includes nasal and
mouth cavities.
Retentive tendency – this tendency is characterized by the retention of accent in
the derivative on the same syllable on which it falls in the parent word, e.g. ˈsimilar,
asˈsimilate.
Rhyme – the vowel (nucleus) and any consonants occurring after the vowel in a
syllable.
Rhythm – recurrence of stressed syllables at more or less equal intervals of time in
speech. See also syllable-timed, stressed-timed.
Rhythmic (accentual) group – a unit of the rhythmic organization of an utterance;
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a speech segment which contains a stressed syllable and a number of unstressed ones.
The most frequent type of an English rhythmic group includes two-four syllables, one
of which is stressed.
S
Scale – the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables of a syntactic whole.
See also Head.
Scale of sonority – the arrangement of phonemes according to their degree of loud-
ness. According to this scale the most sonorous are front low vowels, then go sonants
and voiced consonants. Voiceless consonants are characterized by minimal sonority.
Secondary articulation – an articulation made by two of the organs of speech that
are not involved in the primary articulation.
Secondary stress – a less strong stress than a primary one, usually precedes the
primary stress in a word.
Segment – in phonetics it is the shortest part of speech continuum – a sound or a
phoneme.
Segmental phoneme – the shortest part of speech continuum that is capable of
differentiating words.
Segmental Phonetics – a division of phonetics which is concerned with individual
sounds (“segments” of speech).
Semantically distributional method (semantic method) of phonological analy-
sis – It is based on a phonemic rule, that phonemes can distinguish words and mor-
phemes when opposed to one another. The semantic method attracts great signicance
to meaning. It consists of the systematic substitution of the sound for another in order
to ascertain in which cases where the phonetic context remains the same such substitution leads to a change of meaning. This process is called the communication test. It
consists in nding minimal pairs of words and their grammatical form.
Semantic function: in phonetics the term is used in connection with the distinctive
function (semantic role) of phonetic means.
Sentence stress (Utterance stress) – the greater degree of prominence given to
certain words in an utterance. These words are usually nouns, adjectives, notional
verbs and adverbs, interjections, numerals, demonstrative, possessive, emphasizing
pronouns, interrogative words and two-syllable prepositions. The distribution of sentence stress is determined by the semantic factor.
Short vowels – the vowels having a relatively smaller length, or quantity in com-
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parison with the long vowels (other conditions remaining the same). Short English /ɪ/
and /ʊ/ differ from the long /i:/ and /u:/ also in quality.
Sibilant – a speech sound in which there is high-pitched, turbulent noise, as in
English [s] and [ʃ] in sip and ship. In English sibilants are /s, z, ʒ/.
Silent pause – a stop in the phonation (a stop of the work of the vocal cord, which
results in the cessation of sound).
Silent stop – the medial stage in /p, t, k/ articulation that is characterized by the
“loss of plosion” in cases like: past perfect, blackboard, eight days.
Simple tune – an intonation-group corresponding to a grammatical sentence and
marked by specic characteristics of tone, stress and duration, serving to express semantic completeness and independence – the relevant features of an utterance.
Sociolinguistics – a branch of linguistics that studies aspects of the language (phonetics, lexis, grammar) with reference to their social functions in the society. So sociolinguistics explains the language phenomena in connection with factors outside the
language itself in terms of large-scale social structure and in terms of how people use
language in communication.
Soft palate – the back, soft part of the hard palate. Another name for the soft palate
is velum.
Sonority – a degree of loudness relative to that of other sounds with the same
length, stress and pitch.
Sound – a material unit, produced by speech organs. A sound can be viewed from
the articulatory, acoustic, auditory and functional points of view.
Spectral analysis – the process of mathematically breaking down the complex
waveform of speech sounds into energy at different frequencies to allow detailed analysis.
Spectrogram – a picture of the spectrum of sounds, their frequency, intensity and
time.
Spectrograph – a device which carries out the spectral analysis of speech.
Speech melody – the variations in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.
Stress – a greater degree of prominence which is caused by loudness, pitch, the
length of a syllable and the vowel quality.
Stressed-timed languages – in these languages stressed syllables tend to occur at
relatively regular intervals irrespectively of the number of unstressed syllables separating them.
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Stess pattern of the word (the accentual structure of a word) – the correlation
of degrees of prominence of the syllable in a word forms the stressed pattern of the
word.
Strong form – the form in which a word is pronounced when it is stressed. This
term is usually applied only to words that normally occur unstressed and with a weak
form, such as to and a.
Stress-groups – groups of syllables unied by a stressed syllable. Each stressgroup is a semantic unit.
Strong vowel – the full form of a vowel in the stressed position.
Stylistic modications – sound changes which happen under the inuence of ex-
tra-linguistic factors.
Suprasegmental features – phonetic features such as stress, length, tone, and intonation, which are usually a property of stretches of speech longer than the individual
segment.
Supraphaphrasal unity – a totality of information groups or utterances, united by
the general subtopic and common intonation key.
Suprasegmental Phonetics – a division of phonetics whose domain is larger units
of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts.
Syllable – a sound sequence, consisting of a centre which has little or no obstruction
to airow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this centre there will
be greater obstruction to airow and less loud sound. A syllable is a phonological unit
consisting of a vowel and any consonants which form its beginning or end. Syllables
seem to be necessary units in the mental organization and production of utterances.
Syllable pattern – the type of syllable most common for language. English is
characterized by (C)VC syllable pattern and Russian by CV pattern.
Syllable-timed languages – in these languages all syllables, whether stressed or
unstressed, tend to occur at regular time-intervals and the time between stressed will
be shorter or longer depending on the number of unstressed syllables separating them.
Syntagm – a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete.
T
Target position – an idealized articulatory position that can be used as a reference
point in describing how a speaker produces utterances.
Tempo – the rate of the utterance and pausation, it is often measured in syllables
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per second or average syllable length in milliseconds (ms).
Temporal component of intonation: it consists of pauses, duration, rhythm.
Tense – historically long vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of
speech organs is great: /i:, ɑ:, ɔ:, u:, ɜ:/. In English, the tense vowels are those that can
occur in stressed open syllables such as [ɔ:] in bore.
Terminal tone – the nucleus and the tail of the utterance; a change of pitch at the
junction (the joining of two sounds or words) of two sense-groups.
Tertiary stress – a less strong stress than the primary one, usually follows the
primary stress in a word.
Theoretical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is mainly concerned with the
functioning of phonetic units in the language. It discusses the problems of phonetics in
academic terms and gives a scientic approach to the phonetic theory.
Theory of muscular tension (or the articulatory effort theory) – according to
this theory a syllable is characterized by variations in muscular tension. The energy
of articulation increases at the beginning of a syllable, reaches its maximum with the
vowel (or a sonant) and decreases towards the end of the syllable. So, the syllable is
an arc of muscular tension.
Timbre – voice quality.
Tone – Sounds may be periodical and non-periodical. If the vibrations of a physical
body are rhythmical, the auditory impression of periodic waves is a musical tone, or
in speech – a speech tone.
Tone languages – the meaning of words in these languages depends on the variations of voice pitch in relation to neighbouring syllables.
Toneme – the toneme of a sentence or of a sense-group is a separate phonological
unit, because it performs the distinctive function, e.g. “not ˋonce – “never”, “not ˊonce
– “many times”.
Tongue – the most movable and exible speech organ.
Tonic syllable – the syllable within a tone group that stands out because it carries
the major pitch change, also called nucleus.
Trachea – the “wind pipe” passing up from the lungs to the vocal tract beginning
with the larynx.
Tune – the term which is used to refer to the pitch pattern of the whole intonationgroup.
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U
Undertone – a low tone of the voice.
Unicentral consonants – consonants pronounced with a single articulatory ob-
struction (complete or incomplete); e.g. /t, d, k, g, p, b, s, s, z, f, v, ŋ, h/.
Unilateral – the lateral sonant /l/ pronounced with only one side of the tongue
lowered (usually it is the left side of the tongue).
Unrounded – an articulation in which the lips are in a spread or neutral position.
Utterance – a spoken sentence or a phrase; it is the main communicative unit. It is
characterized by semantic entity which is expressed by all the language means: lexical,
grammatical and prosodic.
Utterance stress – See Sentence stress. Utterance stress is a prosodic phenomenon of speech with a linguistic function of indicating the relative importance of various elements in an utterance.
V
Variations (“in stylistic variations”) – variations in the pronunciation of speech
sounds, words and sentences peculiar to different styles of speech.
Vibrator mechanism – a group of speech organs which vibrate while the air passes through, thus producing voice, it includes larynx, vocal cords, glottis.
Vocal cords (folds) – two soft folds in the larynx which can be brought together
and apart, thus producing voice
Vocal tract – the air passages above the vocal folds which form the system used
to produce speech. This starts at the larynx and includes the pharynx, the mouth, and
the nasal cavity.
Voiced consonants – sounds produced when the vocal cords are brought together
and vibrate.
Voiced pauses – they have usually the quality of the central vowel [ɜ:(ə)] with or
without nasalization [ə(m)]. They are used to signal hesitation or doubt and therefore
are called hesitation pauses.
Voiceless consonants – sounds produced when the vocal cords are apart and don’t
vibrate, as in English [s] in sea.
Voice quality – one of the suprasegmental features of speech that can be controlled
by speakers.
Voicing – the vibration of the vocal folds which accompanies many speech sounds,
particularly vowels.
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Vowel – a class of speech sounds in which there is little or no obstruction to the
ow of air through the vocal tract, and which is normally found forming the middle of
a syllable. The criteria for classicatory description of vowels are: 1) stability of articulation; 2) tongue position; 3) lip position; 4) character of the vowel end; 5) length;
6) tenseness.
W
Waveform – in speech acoustics, the most basic way of representing the pattern of
vibration of a speech sound.
Weak form – the unstressed form of any word, such as but or as, that does not
maintain its full form when it occurs in conversational speech.
Weak vowels – the vowels which are shorter and less distinct, sometimes they are
reduced to the neutral vowel /ə/.
Word stress – a greater degree of prominence on one of the syllables in a word.
REFERENCES
1. Борискина О.О., Костенко Н.В. Theoretical Phonetics. Study Guide for second
year students. [Текст]/ О.О.Борискина, Н.В.Костенко. –Воронеж: ВГУ, 2007. –79 c.
2. Борисова Л. В., Метлюк А.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка.
[Текст] / Л. В. Борисова, А.А. Метлюк.-Мн.: Высшая школа, 1980. – 144 c.
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–168 с.
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для студентов 3-го курса факультета иностранных языков /[Текст]/ О.В. Попова;
Бийский пед. гос. ун-т им. В. М. Шукшина. - Бийск: БПГУ им. В. М. Шукшина,
2006. - 39 с.
6. Соколова М.А., Гинтовт К.П., Тихонова И.С., Тихонова P.M. Теоретическая
фонетика английского языка: Учеб. для студ. высш. учеб. заведений. [Текст]/
М.А.Тихонова, К.П.Гинтовт, И.С.Тихонова, Р.М.Тихонова. — М.: Гуманит. изд.
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центр ВЛАДОС, 2003. — 288 с.
7. Сухарева Е.Е. Theoretical Phonetics of English Language Study Guide.Part 1.
Phonetics[Текст] / Е.Е.Сухарева.- Воронеж: Издательско-полиграфический центр
ВГУ, 2010. – 50 c.
8. Chi-Fen Chen, Chuen-Yn Fan, and Hsiang-Pao Lin. A New Perspective on
Teaching English Pronunciation: Rhythm [Интернет-ресурс]/ режим доступа: http://
www2.nkfust.edu.tw/~emchen/Home/Chen%20Papers/Rhythm.pdf
9. Ogden Richard. An Introduction to English Phonetics. [Текст] / R.Ogden.Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd, 2009. – 194 p.
10. Vrabel T.T. Lectures in Theoretical Phonetics of the English Language and
Method-Guides foe Seminars. /[Текст]/ T.T.Vrabel. - Ужгород: ЗакарпатскоУгорский институт: ПолиПринт, 2009, — 176 с.
Интернет-ресурсы:
11. http://www.soundpiper.com/mln/timbre.htm
12. http://usefulenglish.ru/phonetics/sentence-stress-and-rhythm
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Учебное пособие
N.V. Chumicheva
THEORETICAL PHONETICS OF ENGLISH:
A COURSE OF LECTURES AND PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENTS
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