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1 Cockney, Scouse (the Liverpool dialect).
2 the Northern type of English pronunciation, Southern English accents.
3 Scottish standard English, non-standard territorial varieties (spoken in Scotland).
4 American English, Canadian English.
13. Many educated people in Britain (though their pronunciation is not based
on RP) speak
1 American English.
2 Welsh English.
3 Northern Ireland English.
4 Standard English with a regional type of pronunciation.
14. American English embraces a wide range of pronunciation varieties. The
standard pronunciation of American English is referred to as
1 AE pronunciation.
2 the GA pronunciation.
3 the Southern regional type of pronunciation.
4 the Eastern regional type of pronunciation.
15. In AE pronunciation certain consonants are dropped in denite phonetic
contexts, and the sample of such a consonant is in
1 Give me that one.
2 History repeats itself.
3 It’s an historical novel.
4 Something has gone wrong with the computer.
16. The denition of intonation which embraces relevant prosodic
characteristics is
1 a complex unity of speech melody, sentence stress, rhythm, tempo and voice
timbre.
2 a complex combination of the fundamental frequency of vibrations of the vocal
cords (correlating with pitch) and the amplitude of vibrations related to loudness,
intensit duration and stress.
3 variations in the pitch of the voice, utterance stress, rhythm,tempo and pauses.
4 modications of pitch and loudness, intensity and tempo, rhythmicality.
17. Obligatory structural components of an intonation group are expressed in
the following dialogue by
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1 I’d like to invite Nancy and Tim.
2 Fine.
3 Will you get things ready in the house?
4 Certainly.
18. The communicative function of intonation is concerned with the realization
of the structuring functions of intonation in combination with
1 delimitating and integrating functions.
2 the functions serving the purpose of structuring the information content of a
textual unit and determining its syntactic parameter.
3 the distinctive (phonological) function of intonation conveying the meanings of
textual units, their attitudinal connotations and phonostylistic characteristics in speech.
4 functions connected with semantic and stylistic modications of textual units in
various contexts.
19. The division of an utterance into rhythmic units is based in English mostly
on
1 isochronous intervals between stressed syllables.
2 the boundaries between rhythmic units determined by the semantic and
grammatical relations between the words in an utterance .
3 objective isochrony of English rhythmic units.
4 prosodic characteristics of proclitics and enclitics belonging to the nuclei of
rhythmic units.
20 . Three common types of heads (scales) are
1 the Scandent head, the Sliding head, the Broken Descending head.
2 the Low Level head, the High Level head, the Falling head.
.
3 a descending head, an ascending head, a level head.
4 the Stepping head, the Sliding head, the Rising head,
21. Phonostylistics, an essential branch of phonetics, is concerned with the
study of
1 lexical and grammatical differences in denite varieties of language in use.
2 extralinguistic factors and circumstances of reality involved in the process of oral
and written communication.
3 style-forming means characterized by denite phonetic features.
4 functional styles of the written language.
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22. The phonetic style-forming means ( style-differentiating characteristics)
are
1 the degree of assimilation and reduction, elision.
2 phonetic modications of segmental and prosodic features of speech.
3 the degree of carefulness of articulation, the degree of preparedness of speech.
4 the extent of formality of speech, the social acceptability of a phonetic style.
23. The components of extralinguistic situations relevant to phonostylistic
differentiation of speech are
l public private, impersonal personal dimensions.
2 individual and social characteristics of speakers, their age and sex differences.
3 a formal context, an informal context.
4 purpose, participants, setting .
24. The degree of informality presented in a familiar spontaneous conversation
is identied with
1 even melodic, temporal and rhythmic organization of speech.
2 simplication of sound sequences, uneven rhythm, abundance of pauses, varying
loudness and tempo.
3 a fully prepared type of text presentation which sounds loud and distinct.
4 the occurrence of pauses at the syntactic junctures.
25. Two common informational style registers (spheres of discourse) are
1 educational information and press reporting/broadcasting .
2 a monologue and a dialogue.
3 reading and speaking activities.
4 prepared and spontaneous presentations of speech/talk.
26. The characteristic prosodic features of informal conversational English at
the levels of terminal tones and pre-nuclear patterns are
1 a frequent use of descending and ascending heads, a great amount of compound
tones.
2 a high frequency of simple falling and rising tones, the use of emphatic tones; a
tendency to use level heads.
3 signicant variations in loudness, uneven speech tempo.
4 a tendency to use short intonation groups, sudden jumps down on communicative
centers.
27. The rhythmic organization of verse recitations at the prosodic level (as
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opposed to that of prose reading) is characterized by
1simple intonation contours, often with the stepping head and the falling
nuclear tone.
2 comparatively slow tempo.
3 decentralized stress organization.
4 the isochronic recurrence of stressed syllables (rhythmic units).
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GLOSSARY
A
Accent – 1) a variety of a language which is distinguished from others exclusively
in terms of pronunciation, type of pronunciation, that is the way sounds, stress, rhythm
and intonation are used in the given language community
Accommodation – modications of consonants under the inuence of the
neighbouring vowels and vice versa; the process of mutual inuence of consonants
and vowels, e.g. in /tu:/ /t/ is labialized under the inuence of /u:/ and /u:/ is a little bit
advanced under the inuence of /t/.
Acoustics – the study of the physical properties of sound.
Acoustic Phonetics – science which studies the way in which the air vibrates
between the speaker’s mouth and the listener’s ear, in other words, the sound wave. It is
concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds and uses special technologies
to measure speech signals.
Affricates – noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is
slowly released and the air stream escapes from the mouth with some friction; an
affricate starts as a plosive, but instead of ending with plosion, ends with a fricative
made in the same place. English /ʧ, ʤ/ are affricates.
Allophones – variants of a phoneme, usually occur in different positions in the
word, cannot contrast with each other and are not used to differentiate the meaning.
Allophones of a certain phoneme are speech sounds which are realizations of one and
the same phoneme and which therefore, cannot distinguish words.
Allophonic variation of phonemes – variation which is conditioned by phonetic
position and phonetic environment.
Alveolar – a place of articulation where the tongue touches the ridge just behind
the upper front teeth. An articulation involving the tip or blade of the tongue and the
alveolar ridge, as in English /d/ in die. /t, d, s, z/ are alveolar.
Alveolar-palatal – post-alveolar consonant made with considerable raising of the
front of the tongue, making it equivalent to a palatalized palato-alveolar.
Ambisyllabic – belonging to two syllables. A consonant such as [p] in happy is
sometimes said to be ambisyllabic.
Amplitude – the distance to which the air particles are displaced from their position
of rest by the application of some external force; the amount of energy present in a
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sound wave at a particular moment in time.
Apical – an articulation involving the tip of the tongue; sounds articulated with the
tips of the tongue. English /t, d, s, z, ɵ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, ʤ, ʧ, n, l/.
Applied Phonetics – a branch of phonetics used for practical purposes.
Articulation – the approach or contact of two speech organs, such as the tip of the
tongue and the upper teeth.
Articulator – part of the vocal tract with which we produce speech sounds; used
as a reference point for classifying consonants.
Articulatory Phonetics – also Physiological Phonetics, a branch of phonetics that
studies the way in which the air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs
and the coordination of these movements in the production of single sounds and trains
of sounds.
Aspiration – a period of voicelessness after the release of articulation, as in English
pie [pʰaɪ]; a slight puff of breath which is heard after the explosion of /p, t, k/ in initial
position.
Assimilation – the modication of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in the
speech chain. It is the result of coarticulation, when one sound is made similar to its
neighbour; in English it mainly affects the place of articulation. e.g.: tenˈ men → temˈ
men. It can be progressive, regressive or reciprocal.
Attitudinal function – this function is performed by intonation, when the speaker
expresses his attitude to what he is saying, by intonation alone, e.g.: low fall – lack of
interest: ˎHave you? high fall – surprise: ˋIs she?
B
Back vowels – vowels in the production of which the body of the tongue is in the
back part of the oral cavity (mouth), the back of the tongue is raised. The vowels [u:,
ʊ, ɒ, ɔ:, ɑ:] form a set of back reference vowels.
Back-advanced vowels – vowels formed with the tongue in the back-advanced
position in the mouth: /ʊ, ɑ:, ʌ/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /aʊ, ʊə/.
BBC English – BBC accent (BBC English) – the accent used by most Englishborn announcers and news-readers on serious BBC radio and television channels;
proposed as a standard accent for the description of the English spoken in England
Bilabial – term for the place of articulation of consonants produced with the upper
and lower lips. An articulation involving both lips, as in English /m/ in my. Bilabial
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consonants are: /p, w, b, m/.
Bilingualism – the command of two different languages by a person.
Breathy voice – another name for murmur, a type of phonation in which the vocal
folds are only slightly apart so that they vibrate while allowing a high rate of airow
through the glottis.
C
Cardinal vowels – a set of vowels devised by phoneticians (rst dened by Daniel
Jones) as a standard or reference set of vowels that do not belong to any one language.
The vowels of any language can be described by stating their relations to the cardinal
vowels.
Central vowels – sounds articulated when the front part of the tongue is raised
towards the back part of the hard palate.
Close vowels – sounds articulated when the tongue is raised high towards the hard
palate.
Closed syllable – a syllable which ends in a consonant, as the rst syllables in
English country, magpie, banter.
Coda – one or more phonemes that follow the syllabic phoneme; the consonants
occurring after the vowel in a syllable.
Combined tune – an utterance which is composed of more than one intonationgroup.
Comparative phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the
comparative study of the phonetic systems of two or more languages, especially
kindred ones.
Complete assimilation – assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds fully
coincides with the other. For example: less sugar /leʃ ˈʃugə/.
Consonant – a sound made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth
or nasal cavities. It is usually found at the beginning or end of a syllable rather than in
the middle of it.
Constitutive function of speech sounds – the function to constitute the material
forms of morphemes, words and sentences.
Constrictive – consonants in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is
formed. /f, ɵ, s, ʃ, h/, /v, ð, z, ʒ/; /w, l, r, j/ (constrictive sonants).
Coronal – sounds articulated with the tip or blade of the tongue raised toward the
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teeth or the alveolar ridge (or, sometimes, the hard palate), such as [ʧ, ʤ, s, t].
D
Dark sound – the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory work
– the raising of the back part of the tongue to the soft palate (back secondary focus),
[w] and [ł] “dark” are pronounced with the back secondary focus.
Dental – the place of articulation of consonants where the tongue makes contact
with the upper or lower front teeth; sounds produced with the blade of the tongue
against the upper teeth.
Descending head (scale) – a type of head (scale) in which syllables form a
descending sequence; gradual lowering of the voice pitch.
Descriptive Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies the phonetic structure
of one language only in its static form, synchronically.
Devoicing – a process that results in a voiced consonant being pronounced as
voiceless.
Diaphonic variation of phonemes – variation which affects the quality and
quantity of particular phonemes. It is caused by concrete historical tendencies active
in certain localities.
Dynamic stress – force accent based mainly on the expiratory effort.
Diphthong – a vowel which consists of two elements, strong (a nucleus) and weak
– (a glide); a vowel in which there is a change in quality during a single syllable, as in
English /aɪ/ in high. English diphthongs can be normal – this term is used because they
are similar to the diphthongs normally occurring in other languages: /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ, əʊ/
and centring: /ɪə, ɛə, ɔə, ʊə/ – they are called so because their glide /ə/ is considered to
be a central vowel.
Diphthongoid – a vowel articulated when the change in the tongue position is
fairly weak, in this case the articulated vowel is not pure, but it still consists of one
element. In English /i:/ and /u:/ are diphthongoids.
Discourse – language seen from the point of view of information structure, the
interaction between language users, and the background knowledge which speakers
and hearers share.
Distinctive (relevant) features – the articulatory features which form the invariant
of the phoneme.
Distinctive function of speech sounds – it is manifested most conspicuously in
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minimal pairs when the opposition of speech sounds is the only phonetic means of
distinguishing one member of that pair from the other.
Dorsum – the back of the tongue.
Downdrift – the gradual lowering of pitch level (usually in a tone language) from
the beginning to the end of a stretch of speech. The tendency for the pitch to fall
throughout an intonation phrase.
Duration – the quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same
patterns of vibration are maintained.
E
Elision – the apparent disappearance of a speech sound where it would be expected
to occur; this is usually the result of a fast speech rate. For example: ’tis instead of it is,
th’ eternal instead of the eternal.
Emphasis – combination of the expressive means of the language to single out
emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences.
Experimental Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which deals with research work
carried out with the help of different technical devices for measurements and for
instrumental analysis.
Expiratory, or chest pulse theory – it denes the syllable as a sound or a group
of sounds that are pronounced in one chest pulse, accompanied by increases in air
pressure. According to this denition, there are as many syllables in a word as there are
chest pulses (expirations) made during the utterance of the word.
Explosion – noise made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a complete
obstruction. The sounds /p, t, k/ are pronounced with a plosion, or explosion.
Extra-linguistic factors – non-linguistic factors, the circumstances of reality that
cause phonetic modications in speech. They are: 1) the aim of speech; 2) the extent
of spontaneity of speech; 3) the nature of interchange, i.e. the use of a form of speech
which may either suggest only listening, or both listening and an exchange of remarks;
4) socially and psychological factors, which determine the extent of formality of
speech and the attitudes expressed.
F
Forelingual – sounds articulated with the front part of the tongue. For example: /t,
d, n/ are forelingual consonants.
Formally distributional method (distributional method) of phonological analy-
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sis – it consists in grouping all the sounds pronounced by native speakers into phonemes
according to the two laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution: 1) Allophones of
different phonemes occur in the same phonetic context. 2) Allophones of the same
phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. If more or less different sounds
occur in the same phonetic context they should be allophones of different phonemes.
Their distribution is contrastive. If more or less similar speech sounds occur in different
positions and never occur in the same phonetic context they are allophones of one and
the same phoneme. Their distribution is complementary. There are also free variants of
a single phoneme (e.g. калоши – галоши in Russian).
Fortis consonants – voiceless consonants pronounced with strong muscular ten-
sion and strong expiratory effect.
Free variants – variants of a single phoneme which occur in a language but the
speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them, as for example in the case of the
Russian words “галоши/калоши”.
Free vowel – a weak vowel followed by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by no
consonant at all.
Frequency – a number of vibrations per second; in acoustics, the measure of how
many times per second a pattern of vibration is repeated.
Fricative – constrictive noise consonants articulated when the air escapes with friction through the narrowing formed by speech organs. Fricative consonants are made by
obstructing the ow of air enough to create a hissing noise at a particular place in the
vocal tract. Narrowing of the distance between two articulators so that the airstream is
partially obstructed and a turbulent airow is produced, as in English [z] in zoo.
Front vowels – vowels in the production of which the body of the tongue is in the
front part of the mouth cavity and the front of the tongue is raised. The vowels /i:, ɪ, e,
æ/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /eɪ, ɛə/ are front.
Front-retracted vowels – vowels produced with the body of the tongue in the
front but retracted position in the mouth cavity.
Functional Phonetics – the branch of phonetics which studies the purely linguistic
aspect of speech sounds.
Functions of the phoneme – in speech a phoneme performs three functions: distinctive, constitutive and identicatory (recognitive); they are inseparable. 1) The phoneme performs the constitutive function because in their material form they constitute
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