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Файл:Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. Курс лекций и практикум. Учебно-методическое пособие
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morphemes, words, all of which are meaningful. 2) The phoneme performs the distinctive function because phonemes distinguish one word from another. 3) On account of
the fact that native speakers identify denite combinations of phonemes as meaningful
linguistic units (words, word combinations, or phrases), linguists distinguish a third
function of the phoneme – the identicatory (or recognitive) function of the phoneme.
Functions of the syllable – as a phonological unit the syllable performs several
functions, that may be combined into the main three: constitutive, distinctive and identicatory: 1) The constitutive function of the syllable manifests itself in the fact that the
syllable forms higher-level units – words, accentual or rhythmic groups, utterances. 2)
The distinctive function of the syllable is to differentiate words and word combinations. 3) The identicatory function of the syllable is conditioned by the hearer’s perception of syllables as entire phonetic units with their concrete allophones and syllable
boundaries.
Functions of word stress – 1) Words stress has a constitutive function, as it molds
syllables into a word by forming its stress pattern. Without a denite stress pattern a
word ceases to be a word and becomes a sequence of syllables. 2) Word stress has a
distinctive function in English, because there exist different words in English with
analogous sound structure which are differentiated in speech only by their stress patterns (e.g., insult, abstract, accent). 3) Word stress has an identicatory function because the stress patterns of words enable people to identify denite combinations of
sounds as meaningful linguistic units. A distortion of the stress patterns may hamper
understanding or produce a strange accent.
Fundamental frequency – the lowest frequency that can be found in a periodic
waveform. In speech, this is almost always the frequency of vibration of the vocal
folds.
G
General Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies all the sound-producing
possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for purposes of
human communication by means of language. General phonetics studies the complex
nature of phonetic phenomena and formulates phonetic laws and principles.
Glide – the second weak element of English diphthongs. For example: /ɪ/ and /ə/
in /aɪ, eɪ, ɪə, ɛə/ are glides.
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Glottal – the place of articulation of consonants produced with the vocal folds in
the larynx; an articulation involving the glottis, as [ʔ] button [bʌʔn]; sounds articulated
in the glottis.
Glottal stop – a sound heard when the glottis opens suddenly and produces an
explosion resembling a short cough.
Glottis – the opening between the vocal cords, through which the air passes.
H
Hard palate – the bony structure that forms the roof of the front part of the mouth.
Head (Scale) – part of the intonation-group, contains stressed syllables preceding
the nucleus with the intervening unstressed syllables. The functions of the head are to
express relations between its constituent units – rhythmic groups and to convey modalstylistic meanings.
Height of the tongue – the height to which the bulk of the tongue is raised and
which determines the level of the raised bulk of the tongue: high, mid, or low.
Hesitation pause – silent or lled pause mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain
time to think over what to say next.
Historical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies the phonetic structure of
a language in its historical develop ment, diachronically.
I
Idiolect – individual speech of members of the same language community.
Instrumental methods – methods of phonetic investigation based upon registering
or computing machines and technical devices.
Intensity – a property of a sound produced by the amplitude of vibrations. Intensity
is the amount of acoustic energy in a sound; often used informally as synonymous with
amplitude, to which it is closely related.
International Phonetic Alphabet – a set of symbols adopted by the International
Phonetic Association as a universal system for the transcription of speech sounds.
Intonation – 1) pitch (or melody) variations used to convey meaning. It is normally
distinguished from tone by the fact that tone is usually a property of individual
words, while intonation patterns are more frequently properties of longer stretches of
speech, such as a clause or a sentence. 2) a complex unity of speech melody, sentence
stress, tempo, rhythm and voice timbre, which enables the speaker to express his
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thoughts, emotions and attitudes towards the contents of the utterance and the hearer.
Acoustically, intonation is a complex combination of varying fundamental frequency,
intensity and duration.
Intonation group – an actualized syntagm; the part of an utterance over which
a particular intonation pattern extends. Structurally the intonation group has some
obligatory formal characteristics. These are the nuclear stress, on the semantically
most important word and the terminal tone (i.e. pitch variations on the nucleus and the
tail if any). The boundaries between intonation groups are marked by tonal junctures
and pauses. All these features shape the intonation group, delimit one intonation group
from another and show its relative semantic importance. The intonation group is a
meaningful unit. The most general meanings expressed by the intonation group are, for
instance, those of completeness, nality versus incompleteness, non-nality.
Intonation pattern – pitch movements together with loudness and the tempo of
speech extending over an intonation group.
Intonograph – a technical device which gives pictures of sound waves of syllables,
words and utterances.
Invariant of the phoneme – allophones of each phoneme possess a bundle of
distinctive features, that make this phoneme functionally different from all other
phonemes of the language concerned. This functionally relevant bundle of articulatory
features is called the invariant of the phoneme.
K
Kinetic tone – a tone of varying pitch which is produced by varying the tension
of the vocal cords. Kinetic tones are generally classied according to the following
criteria: 1) direction of the pitch change; 2) width of the pitch change, or its interval; 3)
relative position of the pitch change within the speaker’s voice range. Besides giving
prominence to a word, kinetic tones perform a number of other functions pertaining to
the overall communicative meaning of an utterance. They 1) indicate the communicative
type of an utterance; 2) express the speaker’s attitude towards the subject-matter, the
listener and the situation; 3) single out the centre of new information in an utterance or
the point of greater semantic importance as viewed by the speaker.
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L
Labial – an articulation involving one or both lips, such as [f, v, m]; sounds
articulated by the lips.
Labialization – a secondary articulation in which lip rounding is added to a sound,
as in English /ʃ/.
Labiodental – an articulation involving the lower lip and the upper front teeth,
such as in English /f, v/; sounds articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the
upper teeth.
Laminal – an articulation made with the blade of the tongue.
Laryngeal – the region of the vocal tract at the glottis.
Laryngoscope – a special device which helps to observe the vocal cords, epiglottis
and the glottis.
Larynx – part of the vocal tract containing the vocal cords.
Lateral – an articulation in which the airstream ows over the sides of the tongue,
as in the English approximant [l] in leaf; sounds produced when the sides of the tongue
are active.
Lateral plosion – sudden release of air which escapes along the sides of the tongue;
the release of a plosive by lowering the sides of the tongue, as at the end of the word
saddle.
Lax – historically short vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of
speech organs is weak. In English, the lax vowels are those that occur in monosyllables
closed by [ŋ] such as sing, length, hang, long, hung.
Lenis consonants – voiced consonants pronounced with weak muscular tension:
/b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ, ʤ/
Locus – the apparent point of origin of the formants for each place of articulation.
Long vowels – in English they are /i:, ɑ:, ɔ:, ɜ:, u:/
Loudness – the intensity of sound is produced by the amplitude of vibrations; the
auditory property of a sound that enables a listener to place it on a scale going from soft
to loud without considering the acoustic properties, such as the intensity of the sound.
M
Manner of articulation – one of the principles of consonant classications which
is connected with the type of obstruction to the air stream.
Maximum onsets principle – this principle states that where two syllables are to
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be divided, any consonants between them should be attached to the right-hand syllable,
not the left, as far as possible within the restrictions governing syllable onsets and
codas.
Melody – changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech.
Medio-lingual – sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to
the hard palate. English /j/ is medio-lingual.
Model of a phonetic style – the set of stylistically marked modications of all the
prosodic features represents the model of a particular phonetic style.
Modications of sounds – positional and combinatory changes of sounds in
connected speech.
Monophthong – a vowel articulated when the tongue position is stable, in this case
the articulated vowel is pure, it consists of one element; a vowel in which there is no
change in quality during a syllable, as in English [ɑ:] in father.
Motor theory of speech perception – the notion that listeners perceive some
aspects of an utterance by reference to their own activities, considering what they
would have to do in order to make similar sounds.
Mouth cavity – the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx.
Mutual assimilation – bilateral assimilation, when two assimilating sounds
equally inuence each other. For example, bilateral assimilation of /s/ + /j/ results in
/ʃ/: issue /ˈɪsju: - ˈɪʃʃu: - ˈɪʃu:/.
N
Narrow transcription – also Phonetic transcription, provides special symbols
for all the allophones of the same phoneme. It shows phonetic details (such as, in
English, aspiration, length, etc.) by using a wide variety of symbols and, in many
cases, diacritics.
Narrow variations – a subclass of the vertical positions of the tongue which in this
case is raised slightly higher in the mouth cavity.
Nasal consonants – sounds articulated when the soft palate is lowered and the air
stream goes out through the nose.
Nasal cavity – the cavity inside the nose which is separated from the mouth cavity
with the soft palate and the uvula.
Nasalization – modication of a speech sound (usually a vowel) resulting in some
of the ow of air being allowed to escape through the nose, as in the vowel [æ] between
nasals in English man.
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Nasal plosion – sudden release of air by lowering the soft palate so that the
air escapes through the nose, as at the end of the word hidden. It takes place in the
combinations like /tn, dn/.
Nasal vowel – a vowel in which part of the airstream passes out through the nose.
National variant – the language of a nation, the standard of its form, the language
of its nation’s literature.
Neutralization – the loss of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of vowels
in unstressed positions.
Noise consonants – consonants in the production of which noise prevails over
voice. (compare with sonorants).
Non-distinctive (irrelevant, redundant) features – the articulatory features which
do not serve to distinguish meaning; for instance, it is impossible in English to oppose
an aspirated [p] to a non-aspirated one in the same phonetic context to distinguish
meanings. That is why aspiration is a non-distinctive feature of English consonants.
Nuclear tone – a signicant change of pitch direction on the last strongly accented
syllable in an intonation pattern.
Nucleus – 1) the last strongly accented syllable in an intonation pattern; 2) the most
prominent part of a diphthong; 3) the centre of a syllable, usually a vowel.
O
Occlusive – sounds produced when a complete obstruction to the air stream is
formed. Occlusive consonants are 1) /p, b, t, d, k, g/ – stop or plosives and 2) sonorants
/m, n, ŋ/ – nasals.
Occlusive-constrictive – consonants in the production of which the obstruction is
complete at the beginning of production, then it becomes incomplete.
Open syllable – a syllable which ends in a vowel; a syllable without a consonant at
the end – CV-type, as the rst syllables in English layman, seagull.
Open vowels – vowels produced when the tongue is in the low part of the mouth
cavity, e.g. [ɑ:]; cf. close vowels. Open or low vowels in English are: /ӕ, ʌ, ɒ, a (ɪ, ʊ),
ɑ:/.
Oral consonants – sounds articulated when the soft palate is raised and the air
stream goes out through the mouth.
Oratorical style – the type of speech with which orators address large audiences.
It is characterized by slow rate, eloquent and moving traits.
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Organs of speech – the human organs which together with biological functions
take part in sound production.
Orthoepic norm of a language – the standard pronunciation adopted by
native speakers as the right and proper way of speaking. It comprises the variants
of pronunciation of vocabulary units and prosodic patterns which reect the main
tendencies in pronunciation that exist in the language. It is used by the most educated
part of the population.
P
Palatal – an articulation involving the front of the tongue and the hard palate, as
in English [j] in you; sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to
the hard palate.
Palatalisation – softening of consonants due to the raised position of the middle
part of the tongue towards the hard palate; a secondary articulation in which the front
of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate, as in the so-called “soft sounds” in
Russian.
Paralinguistic feature – a type of feature that forms part of prosody; generally
considered to be outside the set of phonological contrasts of a language.
Pause – a short period of time when sound stops before starting again. Pauses are
non-obligatory between sense-groups (intonation-groups) and obligatory between sentences. It is the main function of a pause to segment connected speech into utterances
and intonation groups to delimit one utterance or intonation group from another.
Pauses of perception – they are not a stop in phonation as there is no period of
silence. The effect of a pause is produced by a sharp change of pitch direction, or by
variation in duration, or both.
Periodic – in acoustics, a pattern of vibration which repeats itself at regular intervals; typical of vowels.
Periodicity – the quality or fact of recurring at constant intervals.
Pharyngeal – the place of articulation of a consonant formed by constricting the
pharynx. An articulation involving the root of the tongue and the back wall of the
pharynx.
Pharyngealization – a secondary articulation in which the root of the tongue is
drawn back so that the pharynx is narrowed.
Pharynx – the part of the throat which connects the larynx to the upper part of the
vocal tract.
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Phonation – voicing, the vibration of the vocal cords.
Phone – a sound realized in speech and which bears some individual, stylistic and
social characteristics of the speaker.
Phoneme – a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of
speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the
meaning of morphemes and words. According to this denition the phoneme is a unity
of three aspects: material, abstract and functional.
Phonetic mistakes – if an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the phoneme the mistake is called phonetic. It happens when the invariant of
the phoneme is not modied and consequently the meaning of the word is not affected
Phonetic oppositions – comparison of sounds, words and morphemes in order to
single out their minimal distinctive features.
Phonetic styles (styles of pronunciation) – different ways of pronunciation,
caused by extralinguistic factors and characterized by denite phonetic features.
Phonetics – a branch of linguistics which is concerned with human noises by
which the thought is actualized. Phonetics analyses the nature of these noises, their
combinations and their functions in relation to the meaning.
Phonological analysis – analysis whose aim is to determine which differences of
sounds are phonemic / non-phonemic and to nd the inventory of the phonemes of this
or that language.
Phonological mistakes – mistakes connected with the alteration of the meaning of
words, which prevent communication. If an allophone of some phoneme is replaced
by an allophone of a different phoneme the mistake is called phonological, because the
meaning is inevitably affected. It happens when one ore more relevant features of the
phoneme are not realized. For example, mispronunciation of /ɵ/ may lead to the confusion of thought – fought, think – sink, mouth – mouse, etc.
Phonological opposition – a pair of words in which any one phoneme is usually
opposed to any other phoneme in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or subminimal pair, e. g. /t – d/, /k – g/ in ten – den, coat – goat.
Phonology (Functional Phonetics, Linguistic Phonetics) – the branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structure, word accent and prosodic features, such as pitch, loudness and tempo; the branch
of phonetics that is concerned with the social functions of different phonetic phenom-
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ena; the description of the system and patterns of sounds that occur in a language.
Phonosemantics – a branch of psycholinguistics that studies the relations between
the sound structure of a word and its meaning.
Phonostylistics – a branch of phonetics that studies the way phonetic means of the
language function in various oral realizations of the language. It is concerned with the
identication of the style-forming means, i.e. the phonetic features that enable the native speaker to distinguish intuitively between different styles of pronunciation.
Phonotactics – the study of the possible phoneme combinations of a language.
“Physical” view of the phoneme – it regards the phoneme as a “family” of related
sounds satisfying certain conditions: 1) The various members of the “family” must
show phonetic similarity to one another, in other words be related in character. 2) No
member of the “family” may occur in the same phonetic context as any other.
Pitch – the auditory characteristic of a sound, it corresponds to the fundamental
frequency (the rate of vibrations of the vocal cords). The pitch component of intonation, or speech melody, is commonly referred to as variations in the height of the voice
during speech, and is generally described in terms of pitch-changes and levels.
Pitch level – a particular height of pitch.
Pitch range – the interval between two pitch levels or two differently pitched
syllables or parts of a syllable. According to circumstances the speaker changes his/
her voice range. It may be widened or narrowed to express emphasis or the speaker’s
attitudes and emotions.
Place of articulation – part of the standard way of classifying consonants, this
refers to the place in the vocal tract where the air stream is obstructed. According to
this principle the English consonants are classed into: 1) labial; 2) lingual; 3) glottal.
Plosion – short burst of noise produced by the escape of compressed air when the
closure of a plosive consonant is released
Plosives – consonants produced when the air stream is completely stopped for a
short time, also stops. Plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ŋ/.
Post-alveolar – the place of articulation of consonants in which the tongue makes
contact with the front part of the palate, just behind the alveolar area; sounds articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge.
Power mechanism – a group of speech organs which supplies energy for sound
production, it includes lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi.
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Pragmalinguistics – a branch of linguistics that studies what linguistic means and
ways of inuence on a hearer to choose in order to bring about certain effects in the
process of communication.
Prehead – the unstressed syllables which precede the rst stressed syllable of
the head. The prehead is normally pronounced on the low or mid pitch level. If it
is pronounced on a pitch somewhat higher than the normal pitch (High Irregular
Prehead) or somewhat low (Low Irregular Prehead) the utterance acquires emphasis
and emotional connotations.
Principal allophones – allophones which do not undergo any signicant changes
in the chain of speech.
Prominence – singling out acoustically, which produces the effect of greater
loudness; the extent to which a sound stands out from others because of its sonority,
length, stress, and pitch.
Prosody – a complex unity formed by signicant variations of pitch, tempo,
loudness and timbre; non-segmental phenomena regarded as the modications of
fundamental frequency (the frequency of the vibrations of the vocal cords over their
whole length), intensity and duration at the level of their acoustic properties. The notion
of prosody is broader than the notion of intonation, whereas prosody of the utterance
and intonation are equivalent notions. Prosody and intonation are characterized by
such distinct qualities as stress and pitch prominence at the level of perception.
Psycholinguistics – a branch of linguistics which covers an extremely broad
area, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such problems as
acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech perception, secondlanguage acquisition and so on.
Publicistic style – a style of speech used in public discussions on political, judicial
or economic topics, sermons, parliamentary debates.
Q
Qualitative – connected with spectral characteristics of a sound.
Quantitative – referring to the length of a sound.
R
Realization – the physical event of producing a phoneme as audible sound.
Recessive stress – stress that falls on the rst syllable or the root of the word if it is
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