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Файл:Экономика. Понятия, принципы, проблемы. Учебное пособие
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Concrete
noun
Abstract
noun
Verb
“Positive”
adjective
“Negative”
adjective
1) examination 2)
3) 4) to use 5) 6)
7) to quantify 8)
9) 10) to predict 11) 12)
2. Read the text below. Use the word given in capitals at the end
of each line to form a word that fits in the space in the same line. There
is an example at the beginning (0).
THE ROLE OF ECONOMIC SYSTEM
In primitive economies, the individual (0) uses his
resources (1)________ to provide what he wants. Thus
Robinson Crusoe had to decide how much time to spend
hunting, fishing, growing corn and relaxing in the sun
according to the (2)_________ of his preferences for
meat, fish, bread and leisure. Similarly, in a subsistence
(3)________ the farmer's output is mainly for his own
family's needs.
Today, however, decisions as to what shall be
produced are linked only indirectly with the actual
consumer. Man now (4)_________ in production,
obtaining the variety of goods he wants by exchange.
Thus, on the one hand, we have what we call 'households',
the units which both (5)________ goods and services and
supply the resources, such as labor, to produce them. On
the other hand, we have 'firms', the (6)________ which
decide what goods and services to produce, and use
accordingly the resources supplied by households.
But if the greatest possible (7)________ is to be
obtained from (8)_______ resources there must be a link
between households and firms. Put briefly, the following
questions have to be answered:
a. What goods and services shall firms produce?
b. How much of each good and service shall be
produced?
c. How shall the goods and services be produced?
d. How shall products be divided between
households?
To solve these problems we need some (9)______ of
USAGE
INDIRECT
STRONG
ECONOMIC
SPECIALITY
CONSUMER
ORGANIZE
SATISFY
LIMIT
INFORMAL
economic system; in short, the economic system provides
the link between households and firms.
41
GRAMMAR
Nouns functioning as adjectives.
Infinitive as a subject versus Infinitive of purpose.
NOUNS FUNCTIONING AS ADJECTIVES
In English many nouns can function as adjectives when they
appear before other nouns (e.g. finance company, market conditions,
key figure). The first noun of the combination functions as an
adjective, describing the second one, which functions as a noun. The
nouns, which function as adjectives are always in the singular even
though they may modify a plural noun.
1. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:
water resources
resource description
money capital
capital deficit
demand management
management activity
corporate income
income distribution
allocation model
model contract
consumer market
market prices
business transactions
trade business
equipment purchase
data processing equipment
government intervention
coalition government
construction costs
price stability
oil deposits
repair job
state directives
plant accountant
2. What do we call these things and people?
Use the structure noun + noun:
1) a manager working for a bank is …….. .
2) an increase in prices is ……….. .
3) somebody whose job is to inspect customs is ……… .
4) the process of describing a problem is ……… .
5) methods used in accounting are ………. .
6) an agent whose job is to make purchases ……….. .
7) tax that you pay on your income is ………. .
8) regulations made by the government are ………. .
9) a contract negotiated for five years is………. .
10) a banknote worth 50 dollars is ……….. .
11) equipment used for production purposes is ………. .
42
3. Complete the sentences using two of the following words each
time.
a) employment, b) card, c) market, d) credit, e) income, f) instruction,
g) world, h) government, i) mechanism, j) agency, k) level, l) intervention,
m) manual, n) population, o) distribution, p) price.
1. You can sometimes use a ____ ____ instead of cash to pay for
things.
2. Many countries have in fact rejected ____ ____ in favor of central
planning.
3. A business that helps people find jobs is called an ____ ____.
4. When ____ ____ fails to improve economic outcomes or makes
them worse we speak of government inefficiency.
5. About 60 per cent of the ____ ____ live in poor countries.
6. Denmark has a more equal ____ ____ than Brazil.
7. Trying to understand what economics is about by studying
definitions is like trying to learn to swim by reading an ____ ____.
8. An economic process in which ____ ____ increases so that money
becomes less valuable is known as inflation.
INFINITIVE AS A SUBJECT versus INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE
Infinitive as a subject
To know a foreign language is
necessary for a modern specialist.
Знание (знать) иностранного
языка необходимо
современному специалисту.
To know a foreign language well
one must read books in the
original.
Чтобы знать иностранный язык
хорошо, нужно читать
литературу в оригинале.
Infinitive of purpose
used at the beginning of a sentence
Translate the following sentences into Russian.
1. To solve this economic problem is extremely important.
2. To solve this scientific problem you have to make a great many
experiments.
43
3. To understand the importance of this financial event you should
know all the facts.
4. To become a complete economist with a professional’s command
of the subject requires many years of hard work.
5. To predict the rate of inflation next year one needs to establish the
relationship between the rate of growth in the money supply and the rate of
inflation over a number of past years.
6. To highlight the role of markets and prices, we ask how resources
might be allocated if markets didn’t exist.
7. To determine the effect of aggregate consumer spending on total
output, employment and prices is a primary concern of macroeconomics.
5. Complete the sentences with your own ideas.
Adverbial modifier
of purpose
Subject Predicate
1. To use scare
society
resources efficiently
2. To reconcile the conflict
between people’s unlimited
demands and society’s
limited ability to fulfil these
demands
3. To analyze
economists
economic issues
4. To achieve full
employment
5. To understand and
improve the performance of
the economy as a whole
6. To allocate goods
mixed economy
and services
7. To prepare an income
statement
44
DISCUSSION
1. Comment on Figure 2.1. What do you think it illustrates? Give
a suitable title to the Figure. What is meant by free goods?
UNSATISFIED
WANTS
wants
which can
be satisfied
from
free goods
Fig. 2.1. ___________________
2. In reality no economy is a completely planned or completely
free market. All economies are mixed. The mixture of government and
the market varies, however, from one economy to another. It is thus the
degree and form of government intervention that distinguishes one type
of economy from another.
List three different ways in which the government can intervene.
1. …………………………………………………………………….
2. …………………………………………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………………………………
scarce resources
45
3. There are a number of potential advantages and disadvantages
of the free market and command economies. Some of them are given as
an example. What else can be added?
advantages disadvantages
Free
market
economy
– the three problems
inherent in economizing are
solved automatically through
the motivation of private
enterprise;
– there is no direction of
labor, people are free to
work wherever they choose;
– a lack of bureaucracy in
economic decision making;
– imperfect knowledge or
immobility of factors of
production;
– vital community goods,
such as defense, police,
justice and national parks
cannot be adequately
provided;
– competition itself may
lead to inefficiency
– the competition provides
an incentive for producers to
be efficient
Command
economy
– the planning authority can
obtain an overall view of the
whole economy;
– adequate resources are
provided to the community;
– its monopoly power is
used in the interests of the
community;
– unemployment may be
avoided
– the use of officials leads
to bureaucracy – excessive
form-filling, ‘red tape’,
slowness in coming to
decisions;
– plans are coordinated
through numerous
committees, directed at the
top by a central planning
body whose members are
primarily politicians;
– state ownership of
resources, by reducing
personal incentives,
diminishes effort and
initiative
4. Imagine that country X could produce just two goods: food and
clothing. Assume that over a given time period it could produce any of
the following combinations:
Units of clothing 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Units of food 24 23 21 18 14 8 0
46
Draw the production possibility curve for country X on Fig. 2.2.
Units of food
25
20
15
10
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Units of clothing
Fig. 2.2. Production possibility curve
WRITING
Exemplifying.
Paraphrasing.
EXEMPLIFYING
In academic writing you often need to give examples of a point when
you are explaining something or proving an argument, or when you need to
give more detail. Here are some ways of introducing examples.
Very common expressions:
e.g., for example, for instance
such as
Other useful phrases:
As an example, consider …
Examples include …
By way of illustration…
This can be illustrated
as follows …
To exemplify this point …
Introducing detail or explanation:
in particular
i.e. (that is)
namely
specifically
например
такие, как
В качестве примера рассмотрим …
Примеры включают …
В качестве примера …
Это можно проиллюстрировать …
Чтобы проиллюстрировать это …
в частности
то есть
а именно
более точно, а именно
47
1. Look at the following:
Forms of business organization
sole traders partnerships companies
This information can be expressed in different ways:
1. There are three forms of business organization, namely, sole
traders, partnerships and companies.
2. Businesses are of the three types, such as sole traders, partnerships
and companies.
2. Write three sentences about the following information using
the expressions of exemplification:
Economic resources
Land Capital Labor
fixed working
PARAPHRASING
In academic writing you sometimes need to paraphrase what you have
just written, for example to explain something by expressing it in a different
way, or to correct, or adjust something. Here are some expressions that you
can use.
Expressing something in a different way
that is to say
in other words
that is
to clarify this
to put it another way
Correcting something
to be more precise
in (actual) fact
more accurately
strictly speaking
то есть
другими словами
то есть
чтобы внести ясность
говоря иначе
говоря точнее
фактически
точнее
строго говоря
48
3. Complete the sentences making use of paraphrasing.
1. The term laissez faire translates as “let it be”, ______, keep the
government from interfering with the economy.
2. Services have much in common with goods, _____ they both satisfy
human wants.
3. The fundamental problem of economics is the problem of
economizing, _______ the problem of scarcity.
4. Write a paragraph on essential and non-essential goods based
on the information in the text. Remember to use examples and
paraphrases.
5. Which connectors in the box below show that two pieces of
information are the same and which ones present an example?
a) in other words d) for example (e.g.)
b) such as e) for instance
c) that is to say (i.e.) f) that means
6. Choose an appropriate connector to complete the gaps in the text.
GOVERNMENT IN THE MIXED ECONOMY
Government’s economic role is clearly large. In a mixed economy
three quarters of production is carried out by the private sector through the
market, though subject to varying degrees of government control. For the
other quarter the government is directly responsible through the public
sector. 1) _______ that government influences the allocation of resources,
goods and services produced.
Government creates laws, rules and regulations, 2) _____ it determines
the legal framework that sets the basic rules for ownership of property and
the operation of markets. Government also produces and sells goods. In
some countries the phone company is government-owned; in most
countries, the government owns and operates urban transport 3) _______
buses and the underground. Some of the economic functions of government
are designed to stabilize the economy, 4) ______ to control unemployment
and inflation.
The major activity of government is to maintain competition. Too little
output will be produced and price will be too high in a market where a
monopolist controls supply. Some monopolies are unavoidable. Most public
utilities (gas, 5) _____) are potential monopolies. Other monopolies may be
artificial, 6) _______ brought about through manipulation by firms. Here
governments intervene with competition laws. Government intervention to
limit market power, 7) ______ by preventing firms with market power from
charging high prices, can improve the allocation of resources.
49
CHECKLIST TO UNIT 2
1. What is the fundamental problem of economics?
2. What are economic resources?
3. How can economic resources be classified?
4. What is land in the economic sense?
5. What does capital include?
6. Is there any difference between real capital and money capital?
7. What is the difference between capital goods and consumer
goods?
8. What does labor imply?
9. What is the role of economic system in providing a solution to the
economizing problem ?
10. What factors determine the response to the problem of
economizing in industrially advanced economies of the world?
11. What does the term laissez faire mean?
12. How is economic activity coordinated in pure capitalism?
13. What did Adam Smith imply by “an invisible hand”?
14. What are individuals motivated by in free markets?
15. What are merits and demerits of the free market economy?
16. Why is government intervention justified sometimes?
17. What is the command economy characterized by?
18. What are defects of the command economy?
19. What is the role of government in market and centrally planned
economies?
20. What is a hallmark of mixed economy?
21. What part of UK production is carried out by the private sector?
22. What does the public sector of UK include?
23. What instrument does the UK government use to influence the
allocation of goods and services produced?
24. What is economic efficiency concerned with?
25. What are indicators of the increase/ decrease in economic
efficiency?
GLOSSARY
advanced adj.
aids n.
arable land
argue v.
передовой, продвинутый. развитый
вспомогательные средства, поддержка,
содействие, помощь
пахотные земли
утверждать, спорить, приводить доводы,
обсуждать
50
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