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Файл:Экономика. Понятия, принципы, проблемы. Учебное пособие
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GRAMMAR
Comparative and superlative adjectives.
Adverbs of degree.
More and Less.
Nominative with the Infinitive.
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
Word length Adjective
One-syllable
adjectives
Two-syllable
adjectives ending
strong
big
busy
happy
Comparative Superlative
stronger
bigger
busier
happier
Degrees of comparison
the strongest
the biggest
the busiest
the happiest
in -y
Polysyllable
adjectives
careful
expensive
more careful
more
the most careful
the most expensive
expensive
two-syllable
adjectives ending
simple simpler OR
more simple
the simplest OR
the most simple
in -er, -ow, -le
have both forms
Irregular adjectives good
bad
far
old
better
worse
farther/
further
older / elder
the best
the worst
the farthest / the
furthest
the oldest / the eldest
1. Identify the comparative and superlative adjectives in the text
above and explain how they are formed.
2. Give the comparative and superlative forms of these adjectives.
great _______ _________
fast _______ _________
high _______ _________
large _______ _________
low _______ _________
serious _______ _________
small _______ _________
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3. Complete the following sentences by using one of the adjectives
above, choosing either the comparative or the superlative form.
1. Since structural unemployment is more of a long-term character
than frictional unemployment it is regarded as _________ .
2. In the early 1930s more than one quarter of the UK labor force was
unemployed. In particular regions the unemployment rate was much
________ .
3. By the 1970s governments in many countries began to perceive an
even _______ danger to economic and social stability, the danger of high
and rising inflation.
4. The research has shown that changes in demand and output lead to
________ changes in the level of employment. For example, when output
grew 17 per cent during 1972 – 1974, employment increased by only
3.1 per cent.
5. Women face ________ unemployment rates than men.
6. Telecommunication industry is one of ___________ growing
markets in the world.
7. American Telephone & Telegraph Co. is ________ corporation in
the world and a unique American institution.
in front of comparative adjectives in front of superlative adjectives
a bit, a good deal, a great deal,
a little, a lot, much, rather, slightly
Helen is much more intelligent than
the rest of the group.
This car is a bit cheaper than the
others because it’s last year’s design.
ADVERBS OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree can be used
by far, easily, much, quite
You are easily the cleverest person I
know.
Kate Moss is by far the most famous
model of 1990s.
4. Put these adverbs of degree into the following sentences. Which
one can be used with both comparative and superlative adjectives?
1. 1 A 1 per cent increase in output is likely to lead to a ______
smaller reduction in involuntary unemployment.
2. This shop isn’t expensive. The prices are ____ lower than
anywhere else.
3. The problem is ______ more complicated than it seems.
4. Let’s go by car. It’s _______ cheaper.
5. The 1989 revolution was ________ the bloodiest in the country’s
history.
6. Last year The company achieved ______ better results.
7. The second interview was _____ less formal than the first one.
142
More and less can
be used
1 as a quantifier
before a noun, or
followed by of or
than to denote a
larger/smaller
amount or number
2 as an adverb
before an adjective
or another adverb,
or with a verb to
denote more/ less of
More is the
comparative form of
the function word much
There were more
accidents on the road
this year than the last
year.
I am not going to listen
to any more of your lies.
People in the UK are
spending more than ever
on health and fitness.
Scotland has become
more prosperous in
recent years.
I would like to travel
more.
Less is the comparative
form of the functional
word little
The industry operates with
less government control
these days.
I aim to spend less of my
time travelling from place
to place.
Payments will be less than
many people were
expecting.
Farmers are having to work
with older, less efficient
equipment.
I’ve been trying to work
less at the weekends.
a particular quality
above and explain their use.
6. Fill in the blanks with more or less to suit the meaning of the
sentences.
MORE AND LESS
1. The countries with ______ population often seem to be those with
_____ problems.
2. The new Ford is designed to use ________ fuel than earlier
models.
3. The merger has created much _____ problems than it has solved.
4. The Whitewater Committee interviewed _____ than forty
witnesses.
5. It costs _______ than $50 to fly to Rome.
6. Could you speak a little _____ slowly so I can understand what
you are saying?
7. Many women are involved in the movement, but ______ publicly
than men.
8. Getting there is ______ of a problem if you have a car.
9. Teenage star, Joe Cole, already earns ______ than the Prime
Minister.
143
y
т
NOMINATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE
Nominative with the Infinitive Construction consists of
A noun in the common case
Or + Infinitive.
A pronoun in the nominative case
The delegation is supposed to
arrive on Monday.
He is said to be an experienced
Предполагают, что делегация
приедет в понедельник.
Говорят, что он – опытный юрист.
lawyer.
Nominative with the Infinitive Construction can be used
1 with the following
verbs in the Passive
Voice:
think, consider,
know, expect,
believe, suppose,
understand, assume,
say, state, report,
announce, hear,
see, make
She is said to work
12 hours a day.
The strike is expected
to end soon.
He was seen to disappear
in the distance.
She was made to accept
this proposal.
Говорят, что она
работает по 12 часов
в день.
Предположительно,
забастовка закончится
скоро.
Было видно, как он
скрылся вдали.
Ее заставили принять
это предложение.
2 with the following
verbs in the Active
Voice:
seem, appear, prove,
turn out, happen,
chance
She seems to know
the subject well.
He proved to be rather
competent.
I happened to meet
an old friend in town.
Кажется, она хорошо
знает предмет.
Он оказался весьма
компетентным.
Я случайно встретился
со старым другом в
городе.
3 with word groups:
be likely, be unlikely,
be sure, be certain
The prices are likely
to increase.
are certain to make
The
the right decision.
Вероятно, цены
возрастут.
Наверняка, они приму
верное решение.
7. Write these sentences in another way, beginning as shown. Use
the underlined word in your sentence.
1. It is supposed that supply and demand curves are independent of
one another. The supply and demand curves are supposed to be
independent of one another.
144
2. It is reported that many people are homeless after the floods.
3. Many people ……………………………………………………..
4. It is said
that the company is losing a lot of money.
5. The company ……………………………………………………..
6. It is supposed
that you will not park here. It’s private parking only.
7. You ……………………………………………………………….
8. It is expected
that our firm will be profitable next year.
9. Our firm …………………………………………………………..
10. 6. Economists think
that some unemployment is normal or
warranted.
11. Some unemployment ……………………………………………..
12. It is known
that severe unemployment can result in violent social
and political change.
13. Severe unemployment ……………………………………………
14. Economists believe
that cyclical unemployment is caused by the
recession phase of the business cycle.
15. Cyclical unemployment …………………………………………..
DISCUSSION
1. Analyze which of the following will affect the level of structural
unemployment.
Statement Yes No
1. The concentration of a particular industry
within a particular region.
2. The speed at which structural change within
the economy is taking place.
3. The immobility of labor.
2. Analyze which of the following may cause frictional
unemployment.
Statement Yes No
1. A shift in the pattern of consumer demand
2. Workers and employers being ill-informed
about the labor market.
3. The introduction of new technology.
4. The economy entering the recessionary phase
of the business cycle.
5. Employers responding to the time of year and
cutting back on their level of production.
145
3. Which of the following types of unemployment is likely to
worsen in which of the following cases? Explain, why.
Types of unemployment
Economic
circumstances
demanddeficient
real-
wage
frictional structural technological seasonal
1. The introduction
of robots in
manufacturing.
2. The economy
moves into recession.
3. Legislation is
passed guaranteeing
everybody a
minimum wage rate
that is 60 per cent of
the national average.
4. The development
of the single market
in Europe leads to a
movement of capital
to the ‘center of
gravity’ in Europe.
5. The government
decides to close job
centers in an attempt
to save money.
6. The government
raises interest rates.
7. More people are
forced to take their
annual holidays away
when the schools are
on holiday.
146
4. Comment on Fig. 6.1 which presents labor market flows. What
N
N
are the ways to become unemployed? How do people leave the
unemployment?
Working
ew hires
Recalls
Job-losers
Lay-offs
Quits
Unemployed
Retiring
temporarily leaving
Discouraged
workers
Taking
a job
Out of the labor force
Re-entrants
ew entrants
Fig. 6.1. Labor market flows. A person may be working,
or out of the labor force. The arrows show the routes along which people move
5. Critically evaluate and explain:
“…a job is the passport to freedom and to a better life. To deprive
people of jobs is to read them out of our society” (Henry R. Reuss, The
Critical Decade (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964), p/133).
WRITING
Generalization and Qualification.
Classification.
In some academic writing it will be necessary simply to give and
describe factual information. Often, however, it is necessary to make
general comments or to generalize about the information. The
generalizations can be made more precise by qualifying them. When we
make a qualification we may be giving our own opinion or interpreting the
information.
GENERALIZATION AND QUALIFICATION
147
1. Compare the following two paragraphs. The first is a
straightforward description of factual information. In the second, the
figures have been changed to generalizations. Underline the changes in
the second paragraph.
A Survey of Unemployment (1)
A recent survey of people out of work analyzed the type of worker
who is unemployed. Out of the one million registered as unemployed, one
in five were women. 60 % of men who were unemployed were to be found
in services and engineering. There was a one in eight chance of being
unemployed in the construction industry. One in twenty were unemployed
in industries such as metal goods and textiles.
A Survey of Unemployment (2)
A recent survey of people out of work analyzed the type of worker
who is unemployed. Out of all those registered as unemployed a minority
were women. The majority of men who were unemployed were to be found
in services and engineering. There was a likelihood of being unemployed in
the construction industry. There was a little unemployment in industries
such as metal goods and textiles.
2. Read the paragraphs below. A number of generalizations have
been made which involve qualifying statements. With the help of the
table given below, identify the qualifications of quantity, frequency and
probability in these paragraphs and in “A Survey of Unemployment
(2)” above, and write them in the tale below. The first ones have been
done as examples.
If somebody was unemployed from engineering, mining or chemicals,
he could usually find another job. However, an unemployed person from
agriculture or construction seldom found a job again. Job chances were
generally much better for manual workers than for office workers.
Most of the unemployed had been without jobs more than two months.
A number had been unemployed for more than a year. Undoubtedly the
longer a person is out of work, the more likely it is that he will not find
another job. In addition, job prospects are definitely worse for older
workers.
148
Quantity Frequency Probability
all usually possible
QUANTITY FREQUENCY
all/every/each
most
a majority (of)
much/many
a lot (of)
enough
some
a number (of)
several
a minority (of)
a few/a little
few/little
no/none/
always
usual(ly)
normal(ly)
general(ly)
on the whole
regular(ly)
often
frequent(ly)
sometimes
occasional(ly)
rare(ly)
seldom
hardly ever
never
A Scale of qualification
not any
PROBABILITY
Adverbs Adjectives Verbs
certainly
definitely
undoubtedly
clearly
presumably
probably
conceivably
possibly
perhaps
maybe
uncertainly
certain
definite
undoubted
clear
(un)likely
probable
possible
uncertain
will
is/are
must/have to
should
would
may
might
can
could
will
is/are + not
can
could
149
If you are uncertain if a word is quantity or frequency you can
normally check by seeing if it can be used to answer the following
questions:
Quantity: How many? How much?
Frequency: How often?
Sometimes generalizations may be introduced or qualified in the
following way:
the (vast) majority of
a (large) number of
In
(+ other “quantity” words)
most
some
a few
cases …
3. Look carefully at Table 6.1. It shows UK unemployment rates
in 1992 in comparison with those in 1982.
Table 6.1. UK unemployment rates (Percentage of relevant group)
Age
1982 1992 1982 1992
Men Women
Under 25 24.2 21.5 20.5 11.3
25 – 54 11.3 12.5 6.3 4.6
Now read the text below which comments on this information. Fill
in the blanks making use of probability expressions. Underline the
sentences containing generalizations based on quantity qualifications.
The Composition of Unemployment
Table 6.1 gives a recent breakdown of unemployment by sex and by
age. It can be 1) __________ seen from the table that it is young workers
who are hit by recession worst of all. Unlike established workers with
accumulated skills and job experience, young workers 2) __________ be
trained from scratch, and firms
3) ___________ cut back on training when times are tough. To combat
this, in 1983 the Thatcher government introduced the Youth Training
Scheme (YTS), which offers young workers a temporary chance of a job.
From the table it 4) ________be concluded that youth unemployment fell
after the introduction of the scheme.
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