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Файл:Экономика. Понятия, принципы, проблемы. Учебное пособие
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4. Are the underlined parts of these sentences right or wrong?
Correct the ones that are wrong.
1. The cost of living has raised 3 percent in the past year.
2. Kate needs to rise her grades, if she wants to enter University.
3. The landlord has raised
the rent
4. An increase in consumer income will rise demand for the good if
the good is a normal good.
5. Any factor raising
supply shifts the supply curve to the right.
6. The postman lay the mail on the table yesterday.
7. I have lain your notebook on the table so that you won’t forget it.
8. Linda always forgets where she lays
her glasses.
9. Their house sits on a hill overlooking a lake.
10. Terry has set there waiting for us for almost an hour.
DISCUSSION
In a mixed economy, government is integrated into the real and
monetary flows which comprise the economy. It is informative to
reexamine the redistributional, allocative, and stabilization functions of
government in terms of Unit 3’s circular flow chart.
RESOURCE
MARKET
3
4
BUSINESSES
6
7
GOVERNMENT
5
8
HOUSEHOLDS
1
2
PRODUCT
MARKET
Fig. 5.1. The circular flow and the public sector
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1. Carefully consider the numerous modifications which stem
from the addition of government. Which flows (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)
do you think illustrate each of the following?
a. Goods and services …………….……
b. Resources ……………………….…..
c. Net taxes …………………………….
d. Expenditures ………………………..
2. Thoroughly examine the governmental flows presented in
Fig. 5.1 and complete the following sentences.
1. Flows ___ , ___ , ___ , ___ tell us that government makes
purchases in both product and resource markets.
2. Specifically, flows ___ and ___ represent government purchasing
such things as paper clips, computers, and military hardware from private
businesses.
3. Flows ___ and ___ reflect government purchases of resources. For
example, the U.S. Federal government employs and pays salaries to
members of Congress, the armed forces, Justice Department lawyers,
various bureaucrats, and so on. State and local governments hire teachers,
bus drivers, police and firefighters. The Federal government might lease or
purchase land to expand a military base; a city may buy land to build a new
elementary school.
4. Government provides public goods and services to both households
and businesses as shown by flows ___ and ___ .
5. The financing of public goods and services requires tax payments
by businesses and households as reflected in flows ___ and ___ . These
flows are labeled as net taxes to acknowledge that they also include
“negative taxes” in the form of transfer payments to households and
subsidies to businesses.
6. Thus, flow ___ entails not merely corporate income, sales and
excise taxes flowing from businesses to government, but also various
subsidies to farmers, shipbuilders and some airlines.
7. Similarly, government also collects taxes (personal income taxes,
payroll taxes) directly from households and makes available transfer
payments (for example, social security benefits) as shown by flow ___ .
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3. Most governmental actions have simultaneous impacts upon
the distribution of income, the allocation of resources, and the levels of
unemployment and prices. Use the circular flow model to confirm this
assertion for each of the following:
a) the construction of a new secondary school;
b) a 2 percent reduction in the corporate income tax;
c) the levying of a tax on air polluters;
d) an increase in the minimum wage.
4. Use your understanding of the characteristics of private and
public goods to determine whether the following should be produced
through the market system or provided by government:
a) bread f) medical care
b) street lighting g) mail delivery
c) bridges h) housing
d) parks i) air traffic control
e) swimming pools j) libraries
WRITING
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
This unit looks at ways in which we can comment on significant
features in diagrammatic information. Although the information contained
in diagrams is normally clear, it usually requires some written comment.
This may be a process, an object or a set of data (which may be a graph, a
chart or a set of figures in a table).
Process: With a process you must describe how something works or
how it is made or used. For this you must focus on the stages in the process.
Object: With an object or set of objects you must describe what
something is or what it does. For this you must focus on the relationship
between parts.
Data: With data you must describe changes, differences or trends.
Focus on what these are and why.
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What ever you have to write about, you must make sure that your
answer is relevant, that is actually does what you are being asked to do and
does so appropriately. To procedure a relevant answer you need to:
1. Analyze the task to find the topic or general theme.
2. Decide on the actual question you are being asked.
1. Look at the tasks below and then fill in the corresponding
boxes to show the topic and the question for each of the tasks. Do not
worry about the diagrams or tables that go with tasks; they are not
necessary at this stage. The first one has been completed for you as an
example.
1. Describe government activity for several countries in GDP percent
in 1990.
2. Write a brief report on unemployment in the United Kingdom
1988-91 as shown in Fig. 5.2.
3. Describe the population of the UK at intervals of ten years.
Title Topic Question
1 The scale of government activity
in a number of countries
How successfully did the
governments run the budget?
(% GDP) in 1990.
2
3
Write short notes
Once you have analyzed the task and know what you need to do, the
next step is to write notes. Choose relevant material that you need to
complete the description. What you have chosen must be relevant to the
question.
124
2. Now look at this task and the table below and list all the
relevant material you can think of (for example, the highest / the lowest
purchase level of the government, the largest / the smallest transfer
payments, the most / the least successful governments in collecting taxes,
running budget deficits / surplus).
Describe government activity for several countries in GDP
percent.
Table 5.1. Government activity in 1990 (% of GDP).
Government activity UK USA
Source: OECD, Economic Surveys
Swede
n
Holland
Goods and services bought
Transfers
Total government spending
Tax revenue
Budget surplus
20
19
39
40
1
18
17
35
32
–3
27
32
59
63
4
15
37
52
49
–3
Once you have a list of relevant items you need to organize them.
Arrange your notes under heading and order them.
This means putting your material into a logical order. How does it
depend on the task type? For example, in the case of a process the logical
order is to start at the beginning and follow the stages of the process
through to the end. In the case of an object it is best to start with a
general description and then focus on specific features. With a set of data
you would generally describe the overall trend and then look at specific
features. No matter what the task is, it is important to get your ideas
organized.
3. Make notes and arrange them under heading for the following
task: Write a brief report on unemployment in the United Kingdom 1988 –
1991 as shown in Fig. 5.2. (You should not make notes about every point
in the graph. Instead you should describe general trends and focus on
particular points where significant changes took place.)
125
Fig. 5.2. UK unemployment in 1988 – 1991
4. Make notes and arrange them under heading for the following
task: Describe the population of the UK at intervals of ten years as shown
inFig. 5.3, in general terms and with specific examples.
The second important writing skill is organizing your ideas:
• divide your answer into paragraphs, with one paragraph for each
of the main headings in your notes;
• within each paragraph, write clear sentences, with one sentence for
each item in your notes;
1901 2001
Year
126
60
50
40
30
Millions
20
10
0
1811
31 51 71 91 21 51 71 91 21
Fig. 5.3. UK population growth
• use linking words and expressions to show how you are
organizing your ideas; show the order of events with time expressions (first,
next, etc.) and the relationship between parts with comparatives and
superlatives (the larger section, the most important bit, etc.) and with
prepositional phrases (next to, linking these, etc.);
• it is important to begin and end clearly as well as giving relevant
figures;
• punctuation is another way of organizing your writing clearly.
Write
Use your notes and pay particular attention to what has been said about
organizing your ideas clearly.
5. Choose one of the tasks 2-4 for which you have made notes and
write a full answer from your notes. Check that your notes are in a
logical order and make sure you organize your writing to show the
order. Pay particular attention to paragraphs, sentences, linking
expressions and punctuation.
CHECKLIST TO UNIT 5
1. What are government regulatory programs designed for?
2. What is the government intervention in economy aimed at?
3. What are the main economic functions of government?
4. What is the criterion for dividing government’s functions into two
groups?
5. What does legal framework established by the government
involve?
6. What basic services does the government provide?
7. Why is it so important to maintain competition?
8. What are the ways of controlling monopolies in the USA?
9. Is there an economic justification for government intervention in
income redistribution?
10. How does the government perform its redistributive function?
11. What is the effect of taxing and subsidizing goods?
12. What does the term “net taxes” mean?
13. What are basic characteristics of private and public goods?
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14. What is the exclusion principle?
15. Why doesn’t the exclusion principle apply to public goods?
16. What public goods and services does government provide? by
what means?
17. Why does the free-rider problem apply particularly to public
goods?
18. What are merit goods?
19. Is there an economic justification for government intervention in
regard to merit goods?
20. What purchases does government make in both product and
resource markets?
21. Why is intervention of government in allocation of resources
needed?
22. What does government spending consist of?
23. What are transfer payments?
24. What is the reason for budget deficits?
25. How can economic policies and programs of government effect
the composition of output?
26. What does stabilization of the economy imply?
27. How can government manipulate its expenditures and tax
revenues to reduce unemployment and the rate of inflation?
GLOSSARY
access n.
accrue v.
adjust v.
adulterate v.
ameliorate v.
benefit n.
benefit v.
bid (bid, bidden) v.
charge n.
charge v.
conductive to adj.
entail
excise n.
facilitate v.
128
доступ
доставаться; накопляться, нарастать
регулировать, приводить в порядок
фальсифицировать
улучшать; исправлять
выгода, польза, прибыль; пособие
приносить выгоду, извлекать пользу
предлагать цену (на аукционе),
претендовать
расходы, издержки; цена; обязанности;
нагрузка, загрузка; заряд
назначать цену; поручать; нагружать;
загружать
способствующий
влечь за собой, вызывать
акциз
облегчать, содействовать
fluctuation n.
Gross domestic product
handicapped p.p.
impose v.
informative adj.
in regard to prep.
justification n.
lease v.
levy v.
levy n.
merit n.
once adv.
recession n.
insurance n.
strengthen v.
subject a.
subject to adv.
subsidize (v.)
thereby adv.
transfer n.
virtually adv.
welfare n.
колебание, неустойчивость
валовой внутренний продукт
страдающий каким-нибудь недостатком
облагать налогом, налагать обязательства
информативный, поучительный
относительно, в отношении, что касается
оправдывающие обстоятельства,
оправдание
сдавать или брать в
взимать (налог), облагать (налогом)
сбор, сумма обложения
заслуга, достоинство, добродетель
как только, стоит только
спад, снижение, падение
страхование
усиливать, укреплять
подлежащий, подверженный
при условии, допуская, если
субсидировать, финансировать
таким образом
перевод, перечисление (денежных
сумм)
фактически, практически, в сущности
благосостояние, обеспечение
аренду
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Unit 6
UNEMPLOYMENT
STARTING POINT
1. What is job for you? Choose the variant which is most
appropriate for you:
a) hope for material and social advancement;
b) a way of providing one’s children a better start in life;
c) the only honorable way of escape from the poverty of one’s
parents;
d) a way of overcoming different social barriers.
2. What do you know about unemployment? Is it a drain on
society or a signal that at last people are getting out of dead-end jobs
into something better?
3. What can and should the government be doing?
4. Given that there exists an unemployment compensation
program which provides income for those who are out of work, why
worry about unemployment?
READING
1. Skim the text about market power. Find an appropriate
heading for each paragraph:
a) structural unemployment;
b) frictional versus structural unemployment;
c) unemployment measurement;
d) frictional unemployment;
e) cyclical unemployment;
f) the concept of full employment;
g) full-employment unemployment rate;
h) economic cost of unemployment;
i) voluntary and involuntary unemployment;
j) types of workers.
1.“Full employment” is an elusive concept to define. A person might
initially interpret it to mean that everyone who is in the labor market –
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