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Materials should consist of a range of images to organise the child’s activities throughout the day and create a sense of predictability. For instance, images with visual prompts that help the child with ASD to concentrate on pertinent information (such as daily routines, calendars, sequence of tasks, etc.) should be included, as well as pictures that reflect the child’s various emotional states. For instance, games involving the “alphabet of emotions” can aid children in recognising and interpreting the emotions and sentiments of others by decoding their facial expressions. Such games can help children analyse emotions and recognise their causes and fluctuations, reproduce emotions, and develop self-analytical skills.

Moreover, theatrical activities can promote interpersonal interaction and inspire children’s imagination and creativity. It is desirable to have a puppet theatre in the play area for inclusive education purposes [Полуянова, 2021].

F. Maajeeny analyses how activity schedules may influence engagement and independent play skills of students with autism [Maajeeny, 2021]. The activity schedule was housed in a binder. A binder was used to display the activity schedule because it closely resembled the task-based activity schedules the participants used in the classroom for independent work during each school day. Inside the binder, each page had a horizontal strip of Velcro. One photograph of a typical playground feature was placed on the strip of Velcro. The photographs that were used were of the actual playground equipment found on the playground. Above each photograph was the typed name or label of the specific piece of equipment.

Students with ASD followed the activity schedule housed in the binder. The classroom teacher stated, “It’s time to do your schedule.” At this time, the classroom teacher also handed the binder to the participant. After the classroom teacher provided the instruction, the students opened the binder to the first page and walked to the first piece of equipment that was pictured. Once the student completed the activity with the specified playground equipment, the students turned the page in the binder to see the next piece of equipment that was photographed. The student then travelled to the designated area and completed the activity with the specified playground equipment. This cycle continued for six activities with different equipment until the completion of the activity schedule. At the completion of the activity schedule, the student returned to free play during recess time. The study findings indicate the efficacy of visual picture schedules in promoting suitable engagement of students with ASD during recess.

7.4. Teaching Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Approaches vary widely within the field of education for children and young people with autism. There exist three primary theories of educational approaches to the treatment of autism, namely behavioural, developmental and cognitive.

Within behavioural framework, which is based on learning theory and assumes that learning is the acquisition of new behaviours, different approaches to autism treatment have been developed.

Discrete trial training (DTT) is one of the earliest and most extensively researched behavioural interventions. A discrete trial is a small instructional unit (usually between 5 and 20 seconds) delivered by a teacher working one-on-one with a child in a distraction-free environment. Typically, an adult presents a series of learning tasks and reinforces successive correct responses from the child. Errors are corrected and the next instructional interaction follows. Each teaching sequence is identical to the previous one and has a clear beginning and end. The teacher sets the pace of instruction, selects the instructional stimuli, and creates consequences that are easily manipulated and controlled, but often unrelated to the instructional stimuli. DTT provides children with multiple opportunities to practice skills. Prompting, chaining and fading are often used to establish control over newly acquired behaviours.

Incidental teaching is a process that occurs when the natural environment is arranged to attract children to desired materials and activities, and a teacher is available to provide attention, praise and instruction when a child initiates an interaction related to a topic of immediate interest. The typical process of incidental teaching consists of child initiation, followed by teacher elaboration and then natural reinforcement. That is, a child initiates incidental teaching episodes by gesturing (pointing or reaching) or verbally requesting a desired object or activity. In response, the teacher elicits elaboration of the child’s initiation and then follows the elaborated response with contingent access to the natural reinforcement (e.g., the desired toy). Incidental teaching procedures are effective in promoting spontaneous language and language generalisation in children with ASD.

Developmental approaches aim to address the core deficits present in children with ASD by focusing on initiating verbal and nonverbal communication, as well as initiating and responding to joint attention and interaction reciprocity.

There are three intervention approaches based on a

developmental framework: The Early Start Denver Model (ESDM),



The Developmental, Individual-Differences, Relationship-Based Model (DIR) and The SCERTS model. These models are multidisciplinary approaches aimed at supporting their families from early intervention to school.

Since the number of diagnosed cases of autism has dramatically increased over the past decade the use of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) has emerged as an effective intervention that addresses the cognitive challenges of autism. In particular, CBT interventions have often been used to address anxiety and social skills deficits in children with Asperger syndrome and/or high-functioning autism. There are generally six components of CBT including, (1) psychoeducation, (2) somatic management, (3) cognitive restructuring, (4) problem solving, (5) exposure, and (6) relapse prevention, which can all be introduced through multiple methods.

Psychoeducation is an important component of CBT, providing individuals with information about common symptoms or problems associated with their diagnosis, and setting expectations about both the course of their condition and the treatment process. For instance, if a child diagnosed with ASD shows signs of social anxiety, they will receive instruction about social anxiety symptoms. The child will be informed of social anxiety’s prevalence in the community and advised that there are effective coping mechanisms available. Such measures aim to reassure the child that they are not alone.

Somatic management, which may include relaxation training, is often used as a calming technique to help the individual focus on relieving somatic symptoms, such as pain. Children with ASD can be taught relaxation strategies before entering a challenging social situation that is likely to trigger social anxiety.

Cognitive restructuring challenges cognitions and replaces them with more adaptive self-statements (e.g. “If there are too many kids on the playground, I can find my best friend and only play with her”). Problem-solving skills are also enhanced to improve the individual’s ability to address novel concerns related to their condition and to identify different situations in which each problem-solving strategy might be most useful. Exposure is used to provide graded, systematic and controlled exposure to difficult stimuli that have caused problems for the client in the past, and relapse prevention strategies are taught to increase the individual’s repertoire of appropriate behaviours and responses [Wang, 2017].

Based on behavioural theory, several methods and tools have been developed for teaching students with ASD.

Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is one of the most effective tools for teaching foreign languages to children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) [Zohoorian, 2021]. PECS is an approach which is based on behavioural analysis, and it promotes meaningful communication that has to be initiated from the child’s side rather than the others. The focus is on the “exchange” through which the child learns the ideas related to communication, such as approaching or interacting. The point is that learning is a result of particular behaviours related to the receiving of a reward. This rewarding system will reinforce the child’s behaviour that will have the consequence of the child’s repetition of the behaviour.

PECS involves six phases.

Phase 1 (how to communicate, which aims at the “initial communication training”): PECS teaches the child to pick up a single picture, reach toward the communication partner, and release it in his/her hand.

Phase 2 (distance and persistence, which aims at “retrieval and delivery of icons”): the learner is taught to walk to the communication book, remove a single card from the communication book cover, and then approach the communication partner.

Phase 3 (picture discrimination, which aims at “icon and item discrimination”): the learner is instructed to recognize that presenting the partner with different icons will lead to various consequences.

Phase 4 (sentence structure aims at making phrases): the child is taught to arrange several icons on a strip in order to communicate the phrase “I want” added to a specific item.

Phase 5 (responding to “what do you want?” aims at answering questions): using the sentence strip for answering verbal questions.

Phase 6 (commenting, which aims at spontaneous commenting): spontaneous commenting of the student by responding to other questions such as “What do you see?”, “What do you hear?”, “What do you have?”, and “What is it?”.

Review questions:

1. What does ADHD stand for?

2. What does ASD stand for?

3. What are the identification criteria for ADHD?

4. What are common strategies for ADHD?

5. What is the Eisenhower quadratic method?

6. What practical interventions are you aware of to help students with

ADHD?

7. What are clear external signs of ASD?

8. What is common in the behaviour of children with ASD?

9. What is meant by the phrase “organise a clear zoning” for children

with ASD?

10. Why is it important for the daily routine of children with ASD, to

have a clear structure?

11. What other ways of structuring the daily routine and learning activi-

ties of children with ASD are you aware of?

12. What are three major theories of educational approaches to teaching

students with autism?

13. Outline the main features of Picture Exchange Communication Sys-

tem when teaching students with ASD.



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