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– the child’s development is determined by their own general tendency,
which determines the growth of their individual qualities, abilities, and capacities. They work towards the full development and integration of separate components, while overcoming any possible negative influences from
their body and environment;
– the child’s development occurs in line with societal demands, which
dictate their present behaviour and future potential for proficient, innovative
social functioning in adulthood.
The ideal norm represents the optimal development of an individual
in socially optimal conditions. It can be considered the highest level
of the functional norm.
Dysontogenesis defines anomalies in the formation of body structures
during fetal development. The term “dysontogeny” was first used in 1927
by Schwalbe to refer to abnormalities in the formation of body structures
during fetal development. The term refers to any form of disorder in ontogenesis, i.e. the development of the individual as opposed to the development of the species (phylogeny) [Кузнецова и др, 2002].
3.2. Categories of Learners with SEN
The ways in which a particular student with a disability behaves and
thinks may be difficult to categorise. The student may be affected not only
by the disability but also by the common experiences of all students, disabled or not. Furthermore, any particular disability will cause more problems
in some situations than in others. For example, a student with reading difficulties may have problems in a language class but not in a physical education class; a student with a hearing impairment may have more trouble
“hearing” a subject he dislikes than one he likes.
In the USA educational authorities have continued to use the following
categories (or “labels”) to classify disabilities [Seifert et al, 2009]:
1. A learning disability (or LD) is a specific impairment of academic
learning that interferes with a specific aspect of schoolwork and that reduces
a student’s academic performance significantly.The student may be delayed
in reading, writing, listening, speaking, or doing mathematics, but not in all
of these at once. A learning problem is not considered a learning disability
if it stems from physical, sensory, or motor handicaps, or from generalized
intellectual impairment (or mental retardation). It is also not an LD
if the learning problem really reflects the challenges of learning English
as a second language.
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2. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (or ADHD) is a problem
with sustaining attention and controlling impulses.
3. An intellectual disability is a significant limitation in a student’s
cognitive functioning and daily adaptive behaviours. The student may have
limited language or impaired speech and may not perform well academically. Compared to students with learning disabilities, students with intellectual
disabilities have impairments to learning that are broader and more significant.
4. Behavioral disorders are a diverse group of conditions in which
a student chronically performs highly inappropriate behaviours. The problematic behaviours have several general features in common:
– they tend to be extreme;
– they persist for extended periods of time;
– they tend to be socially unacceptable (e.g. unwanted sexual advances
or vandalism against school property);
– they affect school work;
– they have no other obvious explanation (e.g. a health problem or tem-
porary disruption in the family).
5. Physical disabilities and sensory impairments – students have seri-
ous physical, medical, or sensory challenges (hearing loss, visual impairment) that interfere with their learning.
Some experts classify learners with SEN as those who do not demonstrate adequate proficiency in fundamental academic skills, falling below
the norm or anticipated standards. These categories of learners are as follows [Borich at al, 1997]:
1. Students with Mental Retardation. Mental retardation is signifi-
cantly subaverage general intellectual functioning existing concurrently
with deficits in adaptive behaviour manifested during the developmental
period, which adversely affects the child’s educational performance.
Mental retardation is generally considered to be a developmental disability that occurs between conception and the eighteenth year. Presently,
a normal individual who suffered severe brain damage after the nineteenth
birthday would not be considered to have mental retardation.
2. Students with Learning Disabilities. Learning disability is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, whether spoken or written, which manifests
itself in imperfect ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations; the term includes conditions such as perceptual handicaps,
brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental
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aphasia; the term does not include children who have learning problems that
are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor impairments, mental retardation, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
3. Students with Behavioural Disorders (Attention Deficit Hyperac-
tivity Disorder). Behavioural disorders are severe and persistent, usually
lasting six months or more. They include depression, attention deficit disorder, the effects of child abuse and conduct disorder. These disorders place
learners at real risk of serious psychological harm, school failure and lifelong disruption. One vivid example of behavioural disorder is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Learners with ADHD have short attention spans,
are easily distracted, and have heightened levels of physical activity.
4. Students with Communication Disabilities. A communication disability is an impairment that involves speech, language, vision, or hearing.
It is important to remember that speech and language are not the same thing,
although the terms are commonly used interchangeably.
Disabilities that involve speech include problems with producing particular sounds or with vocal pitch patterns. Language disabilities, which involve impairment of the ability to understand or communicate, are typically
much more severe than speech disabilities.
Speech disabilities can take many forms. Young children commonly distort, omit, or substitute one sound for another (for example, “sreight train”
rather than “freight train”). Stuttering is another common issue that may
involve difficulty with particular sounds or occur only during moments
of anxiety. A third type of speech disability involves problems with the
voice. Learners who have such voice disabilities may speak in an unusually
high-pitched tone or in a monotone (a monotonous, single-pitched speech)
or may speak too softly to be heard.
Language disabilities are problems with the ability either to understand
language (receptive language disability) or to express one’s ideas in language (expressive language disability). Language disabilities may arise
from physical problems, such as hearing disorders, from mental retardation,
or from a learning disability.
Visual and Hearing Disabilities. Visual impairment can range from
a minor to total loss of sight. A hearing disability may range from a mild
impairment to profound deafness. Learners with mild hearing impairments
may need no more assistance than a seat at the front of the room; those with
profound deafness, on the other hand, may communicate entirely in sign
language.
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G. D. Borich adds the gifted and talented students to the group of exceptional learners [Borich et al, 1997]. A student who reads rapidly, comprehends quickly, has an exceptional memory, is imaginative and creative,
has a long attention span, and is comfortable with abstract ideas is described
with words like “bright”, “exceptional”, “gifted”, or “talented”. The recognition that gifted and talented students are an important natural resource that
must be encouraged, activated, directed, and brought to its full potential
is increasingly apparent.
The categories used by clinical psychologists to classify mental developmental disorders, proposed by V. V. Lebedinsky, are based on the ideas
of Russian and foreign scientists L. S. Vygotsky, G. E. Sukhareva,
V. V. Koval, L.Kanner (as shown in Fig.1.). There are six forms of dysontogenesis:
1. Retardation, also known as underdevelopment, refers to delays
or interruptions in one or multiple aspects of mental development. For instance, different degrees of mental retardation can be observed.
2. Delayed development is represented by infantilism variants, disorders of learning skills (writing, reading, voluntary regulation), insufficiency
of higher cortical functions. Children with delayed development do not
achieve the same level of learning as their peers of the same age. Other
terms for specific inability to learn are “slow learning”, “irregular mental
development” or “marginal debility”
3. Impaired development is characterized by brain damage occurring
during a later period, after the age of 2 or 3, when most of the cerebral system has already formed. Development is affected by disease or trauma that
disrupts normal development.
4. Loss of development is the result of severe impairment of the analysing systems (vision, hearing), moto deficiency (cerebral paralysis), speech
impairment, developmental disorders associated with chronic somatic diseases.
5. Deviated development a combination of impaired development
of some functional systems with the partial acceleration of others, and abnormal order in development of mental functions. For example, the syndrome of early infantile autism.
6. Disharmonic development – personality disorders (psychopathy)
[Glozman, 2012].
34
Fig. 1. Mental developmental disorders
by V. V. Lebedinsky
Within separate correctional education in Russia, all learners with SEN
are categorised according to the specific nature of their needs. Separate correctional education institutions provide special general education to:
– deaf learners (type I);
– learners with hearing impairments (type II);
– blind learners (type III);
– learners with visual impairments (type IV);
– learners with severe speech difficulties (type V);
– learners with physical disabilities (type VI);
– learners with cognitive development disorders (type VII);
– learners with intellectual disabilities (type VIII)
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.
3.3. Defining special education needs and disabilities
According to Regulations N 1082/2013 on the psychological, medical
and pedagogical commission in the Russian Federation, the PMPC carries
out psychological, medical, and pedagogical assessments to identify physical and/or mental developmental issues. Based on the examination,
the PMPC provides recommendations about the type of psychological,
33
Global Education Monitoring Report 2021. – Text : electronic // UNESCO
official site. – URL: https://gem-report-2020.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/
02/Russian_Federation.pdf (access date: 05.05.2023).
35
medical and pedagogical assistance needed and the most adequate education
and training. The commission consists of a teacher-psychologist, a teacherdefectologist (in the relevant profile: oligofreno-pedagogue, typhlopedagogue, surdo-pedagogue), a speech therapist, a paediatrician, neurologist, ophthalmologist, otorhinolaryngologist, orthopaedist, child psychiatrist,
social pedagogue. If necessary, other specialists may also be included
in the commission
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.
A severe or profound hearing loss tends to be noticed relatively quickly
and therefore often receives special help (or at least receives additional
diagnosis) sooner. Mild or moderate hearing loss is much more common,
however, and is more likely to be overlooked or mistaken for some other
sort of learning problem. Students with hearing loss may frequently give
incorrect answers to questions – but so do certain other students with normal
hearing. In addition, partial hearing loss can be hidden if the student teaches
himself or herself to lip read, for example, or is careful in choosing which
questions to answer in a class discussion. Some of these uncertainties can
be resolved through methodical hearing assessments provided by hearing
professionals or medical experts [Sherer, 2004].
The following methods of identification of special educational needs are
in use by educators in the USA [Borich, 1997].
The most widely accepted method for diagnosing mental retardation
today is based on performances on standardized ability, achievement, and
adaptive behaviour tests. Tests of adaptive behaviour measure the extent
to which a person has learned the skills that most of us learn without need
for formal instruction: personal care, feeding, toileting, language, pedestrian
skills, social skills, use of leisure time, etc.
To be diagnosed as having mental retardation, a person must score below 70 on an individually administered IQ test and show significant deficits on measures of achievement and adaptive behaviour. Most states
in the USA rely more on the IQ score in diagnosing mental retardation
than on measures of adaptive behaviour [Morgenstern, 1991]. In essence,
intellectual disability is predominantly defined in terms of a score on
a standardised test of ability.
34
Положение о психолого-медико-педагогической комиссии [утв. прика-
зом Министерства образования и науки РФ от 20 сентября 2013 г. № 1082]. –
Текст: электронный // Гарант : информационно-правовой портал. – Москва,
2023. – Загл. с титул. экрана. – URL: https://base.garant.ru/70485996/53f8942
1bbdaf741eb2d1ecc4ddb4c33/#block_10 (дата обращения:11.03.2023).
36
The diagnostic process of learning disabilities involves the use
of standardised IQ and achievement tests to confirm the presence of a learning disability. Standardised achievement tests possess almost all features
of standardised IQ or ability tests: expert creation of items, standardisation,
norms, reliability and validity. They differ from IQ tests primarily in terms
of the test content.
In the process of diagnosing ADHD developmental psychologists identify four hallmarks or primary symptoms of ADHD: (1) inability to sustain
attention, (2) impulsivity, (3) hyperactivity, and (4) deficits in rule-governed
behaviour [Borich, 1997].
Inability to sustain attention. Learners with ADHD struggle to maintain
focus and complete tasks over an extended period when compared to their
peers. This challenge is less apparent while engaging in activities such as
watching television or playing video games, but it becomes more noticeable
during tedious, monotonous, arduous, and repetitive activities.
Impulsivity. Psychologists define impulsivity as the failure to stop and
think before responding to a task.
Hyperactivity. Current research calls into question the notion that overactivity or hyperactivity is the most significant feature of ADHD.
Rule-governed behaviour in the classroom has three aspects: immediate
compliance with requests; persistence in continuing assigned tasks; and use
of problem-solving strategies to cope with unfamiliar situations.
Learners
with ADHD have particular problems with the second aspect of rulegoverned behaviour, persistence.
3.4. Theories and Approaches to Teaching Students with SEN:
Constructivism VS Behaviourism
There are two different theories to teaching in the field of education and
in particular special education: constructivism and behaviourism.
Lev Vygotsky's theory of social constructivism highlights the significance
of sociocultural education. This involves internalising cognitive tools
and interactions with adults and more capable peers, to form mental constructs through the zone of proximal development [Vygotsky, 1978]. One of
the key ideas associated with this theory is that learning should be meaningful and related to real life situations. For instance, instead of continuously
giving children word problems to learn how to make change for a dollar,
constructivist theory proposes that it is better to provide children with real
money to use at a classroom or school store for practice. In social studies,
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students could role play lawyers, judges, and jury for a simulated court case
or conduct an election for classroom leaders instead of memorizing the related procedures and policies.
Teachers following a constructivist perspective base their instruction on
what the students already know. This approach supports students with learning disabilities because of their low self-esteem and repeated experiences
of failure. So, if they have the chance to start with something familiar, new
learning does not seem so overwhelming and frustrating.
Another principle of the constructivist approach is to prioritise key con-
cepts and their relationships within and between subject areas. Teachers
emphasise significant connections of vital ideas for the subject, rather than
isolated fragments of knowledge.
Active learning is a crucial aspect of a constructivist approach to teaching. By actively participating in the lesson, students acquire and remember
the information. The use of role play, art and group projects is also useful
in clarifying and reinforcing what is being taught. Such practices are particularly valuable for stimulating and engaging students with special educational needs, who typically adopt a more passive learning style due to their
previous experiences with failure.
High level thinking skills, such as problem solving and analysis, are
often thought to be too abstract and difficult for students with learning problems, even though they are an important part of a constructivist curriculum.
However, with appropriate guidance and preparation, emphasising these
skills is both possible and advantageous for such students.
M. Steele summarises the key ideas based on constructivist theory
for teaching students with SEN in the mainstream classroom:
– relate lessons to real life situations to make the ideas more meaningful;
– start lessons with information and examples that are familiar to the
students (from their own experiences);
– focus on a few key ideas in each lesson that underlie several topics
and subject areas;
– design activities in which students are actively involved in the lesson;
– integrate high level thinking skills, and provide clear explanations and
guidance to clarify.
Behaviourist theory applied in the inclusive classroom is typically
known as explicit or direct instruction.
One strategy associated with structured approaches to teaching involves
breaking down the tasks into small, manageable segments for teaching.
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This is particularly useful for students with SEN as they become easily frustrated and overwhelmed when material appears too complex.
Modelling is another important component of explicit instructional techniques. In the writing process, for example, it is important for a teacher
to explain and demonstrate each stage.
In explicit instruction, there is extensive practice and review of new material until mastery is achieved. The students with SEN benefit from the
overlearning approach due to their memory and information processing difficulties.
Steele presents the fundamental concepts of behaviourism theory for instructing students with SEN in the mainstream classroom:
– break down tasks into small segments;
– model, demonstrate, and explain each step in a procedure or new task;
– include as much extra practice and review as needed for mastery
to occur;
– incorporate structure and predictable routine into lessons;
– use monitoring and feedback as lesson progresses rather than waiting
until conclusion [Steele, 2005].
Review questions:
1. Define the concept of “norm” in relation to a person’s level of psy-
chosocial development.
2. Give examples of different classifications of SEN.
3. What are the two forms of dysontogenesis associated with retarda-
tion?
4. What are the two forms of dysontogenesis associated with dispropor-
tional development?
5. What are the two forms of dysontogenesis associated with deviation,
loss of function?
6. How many types of correctional schools are there in Russia? What
are they?
7. What commission is responsible for identifying physical and/or men-
tal development problems in children in Russia?
8. What are the most common methods of identifying mental retarda-
tion?
9. What are the most common methods of identifying learning disa-
bilities?
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10. What is the main idea emphasised by the theory of social construc-
tivism?
11. Summarise the key ideas based on constructivist theory for teaching
students with SEN in inclusive classrooms.
12. What is the focus of behaviourist theory for the inclusive classroom?
13. Summarise the key ideas based on behaviourist theory for teaching
students with SEN in the inclusive classroom.
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