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Файл:Обучение иностранным языкам в условиях инклюзии. Teaching foreign languages in the inclusive classroom. Учебное пособие
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to search certain digits (0–9) rapidly and delete them in the sequence from
small to large (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .. . .9) on a paper of 100 digits. Visual track-
ing task included dynamic tracking and static tracking. In dynamic tracking
task, participants were required to gaze the moving object, pursuit its moving direction, and localize its final position. Static tracking task involved
line puzzle and maze puzzle. In the line puzzle task, participants were asked
to follow the correct line to find the correct object in connection with the
target; in the maze puzzle task, participants were required to find the correct
path from entrance to exit. Stimuli in visual search and static visual tracking
were presented on papers, while stimuli in dynamic tracking were presented
by the computer.
a b
с d
Fig. 3. The examples of visual search and visual tracking tasks. (a)
The example of visual search; (b) The example of dynamic tracking:
(c) The example of line puzzle (static tracking); (d) The example
of maze puzzle (static tracking)
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URL : https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283260486_The_effect_of_
magnocellular-based_visual-motor_intervention_on_Chinese_children_with_develop
mental_dyslexia (access date: 04.10.2023).
61
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The modification of visual search and visual tracking tasks can be used
in foreign language teaching for dyslexic students.
Dysgraphia is a specific disorder that affects the writing process, result-
ing in an inability to express coherent thoughts on paper or to write legibly
[Кузнецова, 2002].
The term “dysgraphia” is not widely used in schools. One reason is that
handwriting difficulties can be included under the label of learning disabilities. Another reason is that there is no consensus in the field on one definition or identification process for dysgraphia. Teachers should be aware
of the signs and symptoms of dysgraphia and not dismiss a child as simply
having sloppy handwriting. Figures 4 and 5 show examples of the handwriting of a student with dysgraphia and a typical student’s handwriting
[Crouch, 2007].
Fig. 4. An example of a student’s handwriting
with dysgraphia
45
URL: https://www.academia.edu/25550613/Dysgraphia_How_It_Affects_A_
Students_Performance_and_What_Can_Be_Done_About_It (access date: 04.10.2023).
62
45
Fig. 5. A student’s handwriting who does not have a disability46
The characteristics of dysgraphia are varied and students may display
one or more of these in practice:
– cramped fingers on writing tool;
– odd wrist, body, and paper positions;
– excessive erasures;
– mixture of upper- and lowercase letters;
– mixture of printed and cursive letters;
– inconsistent letter formations and slant;
– irregular letter sizes and shapes;
– unfinished cursive letters;
– misuse of line and margin;
– poor organization on the page;
– inefficient speed in copying;
– decreased speed of writing;
– general illegibility;
– inattentiveness about details when writing;
– frequent need of verbal cues and use of sub-vocalizing;
– heavy reliance on vision to monitor what the hand is doing during
writing;
46
URL: https://www.academia.edu/25550613/Dysgraphia_How_It_Affects_A_
Students_Performance_and_What_Can_Be_Done_About_It (access date: 04.10.2023).
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– slow implementation of verbal directions that involve sequencing and
planning [Richards, 1999].
Many instructional strategies have been proposed to help students with
dysgraphia. Richards suggests two different approaches to address dysgraphia [Richards, 1999]. The first is using systematic techniques that improve functioning; this is referred to as a remedial treatment. Remedial
treatments are those that seek to correct handwriting either through direct
instruction of handwriting or a fine motor program. The second strategy is
using bypass strategies, such as technology, to find a way around the handwriting difficulties. Compensatory techniques or ways to alleviate the problem would be bypass strategies.
Remedial treatment includes:
– drill and practice. The teacher should provide a clear example of good
handwriting and then the children should practice and drill using the teacher’s model;
– building fine motor skills. Using drills that build the muscles used
for fine motor activities can help improve hand functioning, which can
lead to better handwriting. For instance, one can rub hands together,
squeeze tennis balls, rub hands in circles on the carpet. Engage in activities such as playing with wikki stix, building with small lego blocks,
stringing small beads, rolling clay between fingers, “walking” fingers up
and down the pencil;
– correct the paper position and the slant of letters for better handwrit-
ing [Crouch, 2007].
Review questions:
1. What are the requirements for the premises of the educational organi-
sation for students with reduced mobility?
2. Where is it necessary to reserve seats for wheelchair users?
3. What are the main types of mental disorders in cerebral palsy?
4. What is the difference between speech and language disorders?
5. What types of speech disorders do you know?
6. What type of speech disorder is it when a student involuntarily re-
peats words or sounds?
7. How do you help learners with speech disorders?
8. What are the different types of language disorders?
9. Outline intervention strategies for dyslexic students suggested by re-
cent research.
10. What does remedial treatment for students with digraphia involve?
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6. INCLUSIVE EDUCATION FOR STUDENTS
WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY OR MENTAL
RETARDATION
6.1. Learning Environment for Students
with Intellectual Disability
A mentally retarded student is someone who has a persistent impairment
of cognitive activity due to organic brain damage. They can experience restricted language or speech ability, which could lead to inadequate academic
performance. In contrast to students with learning difficulties, mentally retarded students have broader and more significant learning disabilities.
Their scores on intelligence assessments are typically low.
Traditionally the “intensity” of the disability was defined by scores on
a Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (or “IQ test”), with lower
scores indicating more severe disability.
Around 75–80 % of children have mild mental retardation and score be-
low 50 on a standardized IQ test. It is recommended that children with mild
intellectual disabilities attend regular schools instead of special schools.
After receiving education, many of them are capable of social adaptation
and employment. They are believed to be teachable and can acquire some
fundamental academic skills.
Children with moderate retardation account for about 15 % of cases.
They score between 30 and 50 in IQ tests. Some individuals attend specialised schools for those with intellectual or mental retardation, or are
educated at home by parents or visiting teachers. Typically, they reside
with their families. Finding employment can be challenging. Recently, due
to many years of concentrated research, certain children with moderate
intellectual retardation have been able to acquire certain knowledge, skills
and abilities within a curriculum specially designed for them. This programme instructs fundamental reading, writing and maths, in addition to
basic vocational skills, enabling them to perform effectively in specifically
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arranged workshops in schools or boarding schools. They are teachable and
can acquire self-help and routine work abilities.
However, children who have a severe disability (with an IQ below 30)
may only be capable of carrying out basic tasks for personal care. As a result, they are frequently sent to residential institutions (with consent from
parents) to receive adequate medical attention, supervision, and care
[Кузнецова, 2002].
L. S. Vygotsky's theory of the unity of laws governing normal and abnormal development proposes that the concept of normal child development
can be used to explain the development of mentally disabled children. Thus,
it can be assumed that the factors influencing children's development are
similar.
The development of a child with mental retardation is determined by biological and social factors. The severity of the disability, its structural characteristics, and the timing of its onset are some of the biological factors.
The social factors include the child's immediate environment such as family,
peers, and school [Vygotsky, 1978].
Children with mental retardation are characterised by the underdevelopment of all mental functions, including the lack of abstract forms of
thought. These disabilities are often accompanied by disorders of general
and fine motor skills, speech, perception, memory, attention, emotions and
behaviour. However, the main disorder is the underdevelopment of cognitive activity.
Therefore, the least restrictive environment for students with intellectual
disabilities should:
– teach basic self-care skills;
– encourage cognitive activity (development of operational, visual, figurative, verbal-logical thinking);
– establish a close link between the child’s practical experience and his
visual and abstract perceptions;
– support healthy sensory experiences in practical activities and sensory
play.
To tackle these concerns, an educational setting ought to furnish instructional materials that aid the assimilation of practical and sensory knowledge,
and their transfer to stimulating, interactive scenarios. These resources could
include a series of pictures designed to promote action, educational tools
focused on hygiene and self-care, a range of educational games to encourage exploration of one’s surroundings, self-expression, and adjustment
to new environments, as well as a sensory room.
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A sensory space is purposefully designed to incorporate a variety of
stimuli that help individuals foster and activate their senses. Producing a
sensory space results in numerous advantages, including:
– sensory rooms can provide increased sensory input for students who
require more stimulation to enable them to regulate their sensory and emotional needs;
– sensory rooms can incorporate mindfulness activities to support interceptive awareness to facilitate self-regulation and support social and emotional learning [Lynch, 2020];
– sensory rooms can promote self-care, self-nurturance, empowerment,
skill development, resilience and recovery [Champagne, 2006].
Fig. 6. A sensory room
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In some cases, a sensory space can be a whole room, or it can simply
be a space set aside in a corner of a larger room.
Digital tools an important part of learning and teaching, especially
of students with developmental disabilities. R. E. Wright with colleagues
examined the use of a wearable smartwatch-based intervention to support
the executive functioning needs of college students with intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorders. Wearable smartwatch with contextaware application have the potential to compensate for some of the cognitive executive functioning challenges associated with ID and to further
47
URL: https://www.proquest.com/docview/235731747 (access date: 04.10.2023).
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increase independent living and post-school outcomes. The flexibility
of wearable devices can be illustrated by the use of a context-aware checklist and reminder application. Contextually-aware electronic reminders and
checklists are only shown when relevant to the current environment
and useful to the user’s situation. The major advantage of contextual awareness is that the user can be notified automatically without having to remember anything, such as keeping up with written notes and appointment books
or check a schedule. The smartwatches used in this study feature the ability
to provide both visual and tactile (vibration) notifications to the user based
on the time, day, or recognition of activity as specified through the GuruWear application and allow direct user input through either voice commands
or the touchscreen of the watch face. As a result, students indicated that
they enjoyed using the smartwatch and application to remember new appointments and what they needed to do when they arrived at appointments
[Wright, 2022].
6.2. Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities
K. Seifert and colleagues have identified some specific techniques to
help in teaching students with mild or moderate intellectual disabilities, but
most can be summarised into three more general strategies [Seifert, 2009].
The first is to give more time and practice than usual; the second is to embed activities into the context of daily life or functioning where possible;
and the third is to include the child both in social and in academic activities,
rather than just one or the other.
Giving more time and practice than usual. Because of the disability,
a student with a mild intellectual disability may need more time or practice
than most other students. He or she may be able to read many words by sight
(day, night, morning, afternoon, etc.), but need longer than other students to
recognise and say them. Or the student may know that 2 + 3 = 5, but need
help applying this math fact to real objects; you (or a helper) might need
to show the student that two pencils plus three pencils make five pencils.
Giving additional tutoring requires patience and dedication, as it can
test the student's endurance as well as your own. One way to address this
challenge is to regularly reward the student for effort and success with
well-timed praise, especially if it is focused on specific, real achievements.
It is essential, however, to avoid lowering the bar with tasks that are too
easy or using materials designed for much younger children, as this may
give the impression that the student's abilities are underestimated.
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Setting low expectations for students with intellectual disabilities denies
them opportunities to learn and is a grave ethical and professional error.
Adaptive and functional skills. Students with intellectual disabilities present especially clear examples of a universal dilemma of teaching: since
there is not enough time to teach everything, how do we choose what to
teach? One basis for selecting activities is to relate learning goals to students’ everyday lives and activities, just as you would with all students. This
strategy addresses the other defining feature of mental retardation, the student’s difficulties with adapting to and functioning in everyday living.
In-
stead of simply learning words in a “basic reading” series (or reading textbook), try to encourage the student to learn words that are especially useful
to the student’s own life. Often the student, not you yourself, is the best person to decide what these words actually are.
Include the student deliberately in group activities. The student should
participate in and contribute to the life of the class as much as possible.
This means that wherever possible, the student attends special events
(assemblies, field days) with the class; that if the class plays a group game,
then the student with the disability should take part in the game; that
if classmates do an assignment as a group, then if at all possible the student
is assigned to one of the groups.
K. Stancin's literature review indicated the existence of 21 computer
games designed specifically for students with intellectual disabilities. Most
of the games were categorised as serious games (9 games plus 3 games that
the creators classified as augmented or virtual reality). Additionally, there
were seven educational games. Some authors described the games as edutainment, the term which refers to the use of various forms of media such as
video games, films, music, and websites to facilitate enjoyable learning
[Stancin, 2020].
C. Nostalgianti described some teaching strategies for students with
mental retardation and classroom management techniques that can be used
in an inclusive classroom [Nostalgianti, 2020]. Positive teaching strategies
for the interaction with students with mental retardation are the following:
– pace instructional slowly enough to ensure a high rate of success;
– explain tasks concretely, specifically and completely. If we simply tell
a student to “take this absentee to the principal’s office”, he or she may not
think of the classroom after completing the errand. Instead, we should give
concrete, specific, and complete instructions; for example, we might say:
“Go to the principal’s office, give Mrs Smith the absentee note, and come
back here”;
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– provide considerable scaffolding to facilitate effective cognitive processing. For example, we help students focus their attention by using
phrases such as “get ready”, “look” or “listen”. We can teach them some
simple, concrete memory strategies, such as repeating instructions to themselves or physically rearranging a group of items they need to remember.
We can also give them simple, structured study guides that tell them exactly
what to focus on when they study;
– include vocational and general life skills in the curriculum. Because
of the limited ability of students to generalise what they have learned from
one situation to another, it is particularly important to teach life and work
skills in realistic settings that closely resemble the situations in which students will find themselves when they leave school;
– encourage independence rather than dependency. If a student comes
to class without a pencil, we might ask them to buy one from the classroom
cupboard, rather than simply handing out a pencil. And we might give specific instructions about what a student should do independently with any
free time after assigned tasks have been completed.
There are seven techniques in managing the classroom, namely:
– display respect towards students;
– clearly establish behavioural expectations;
– modify behaviour appropriately;
– ensure lesson structure is logical;
– encourage student participation;
– provide constructive feedback.
When instructing students with mental retardation, it is important
for the teacher to take into account how the level of the disability relates to
the instruction.
The teachers use three kinds of strategies to teach foreign language
to students with mental retardation. The first is imitation and modelling
strategy. The approach is rooted in repetition. The teacher asks the meaning
of some vocabularies and models how to pronounce vocabularies. In addition, the students are instructed to repeat the vocabularies themselves.
The teacher conducts vocabulary drills with the students both as individuals
and as a group.
The second is demonstration strategy. The teacher uses “Talking Book”
learn pad to show the situation of something. For instance, if the teacher
displays an image of a window, the pad would make a sound like a window
opening. This allows the teacher to provide concrete examples to the students. Additionally, the teacher can serve as a model by demonstrating
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