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Файл:Your majesty science. Учебное пособие
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1. Translate the article using a dictionary. Pay attention to the Non-Finite
forms of the verb.
SELF-ASSESSMENT VI
Conventional Engineering Materials
There are more than 50,000 materials available to
engineers for the design and manufacturing of products
for various applications. These materials range from
ordinary materials (e.g., copper, cast iron, brass), which
have been available for several hundred years, to the
more recently developed, advanced materials (e.g., composites, ceramics, and highperformance steels). Due to the wide choice of materials, today’s engineers are posed
with a big challenge for the right selection of a material and the right selection of a
manufacturing process for an application. It is difficult to study all of these materials
individually; therefore, a broad classification is necessary for simplification and
characterization.
These materials, depending on their major characteristics (e.g., stiffness,
strength, density, and melting temperature), can be broadly divided into four main
categories: (1) metals, (2) plastics, (3) ceramics, and (4) composites. Each class
contains large number of materials with a range of properties which to some extent
results in an overlap of properties with other classes.
The maximum operating temperature in metals does not degrade the material
the way it degrades the plastics and composites. Metals generally tend to temper and
age at high temperatures, thus altering the microstructure of the metals. Due to such
microstructural changes, modulus and strength values generally drop. The maximum
temperature is the temperature at which the material retains its strength and stiffness
values to at least 90% of the original values.
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Metals have been the dominating materials in the past for structural
applications. They provide the largest design and processing history to the engineers.
The common metals are iron, aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc, lead, nickel, and
titanium. In structural applications, alloys are more frequently used than pure metals.
Alloys are formed by mixing different materials, sometimes including nonmetallic
elements. Alloys offer better properties than pure metals. For example, cast iron is
brittle and easy to corrode, but the addition of less than 1% carbon in iron makes it
tougher, and the addition of chromium makes it corrosion-resistant. Through the
principle of alloying, thousands of new metals are created.
Metals are, in general, heavy as compared to plastics and composites. Only
aluminum, magnesium, and beryllium provide densities close to plastics. Steel is 4 to
7 times heavier than plastic materials; aluminum is 1.2 to 2 times heavier than
plastics. Metals generally require several machining operations to obtain the final
product. They provide the largest design and processing history to the engineers.
Sanjay K. Mazumdar, Ph.D. COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING
2. Make a presentation on modern composite materials and their uses.
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UNIT SEVEN
Причастные обороты
1. Конструкция «Сложное дополнение» с причастием.
In the next room I could hear them arguing heatedly. Я слышал, как они яростно
спорили в соседней комнате.
I found the laboratory closed. – Я обнаружил, что лаборатория закрыта.
2. Конструкция «Сложное подлежащее» с причастием.
He was seen engaged in a conversation with renowned scientist. Видели, как он
беседовал c одним известным ученым.
The spacecraft was seen taking off. Видели, как космический корабль стартовал.
3. Независимый причастный оборот.
The data being thoroughly analyzed we were able to publish the results. После того,
как все данные были тщательно проанализированы, мы смогли опубликовать
результаты.
Circumstances permitting, we shall start the experiment tomorrow. Если
обстоятельства позволят, мы приступим к опыту завтра.
The team of the researchers won the recognition of the world scientific
community, a Russian atomic engineer being one of them. Группа исследователей
завоевала всемирное признание, причем среди них был российский ученыйатомщик.
4. Независимый причастный оборот с предлогом.
They kept working, with all the computers engaged. Они продолжали работать,
задействовав все терминалы.
They presented their project, with the chief being dissatisfied as usual. Они
представили свой проект, однако шеф был, как всегда, недоволен.
PRACTICE
1. Translate into Russian. Pay attention to the Participles and Participial
Constructions.
1. The idea was that ships sailing in one direction would pass under one span,
and those sailing in the other direction would use the other span.
2. A new design was made for a suspension bridge, at that time being the
longest bridge in the world.
3. I learned a lot of practical skills, being supervised by skilled workers.
4. He was heard discussing the question of buying modern machinery with the
board of directors.
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5. He found all new equipment broken.
6. You can include roof panels to introduce natural light to all parts of the
building, permitting ventilation.
2. Skim the article to find sentences with Participles and Participial
Constructions. Translate them into Russian.
Barren land
Why Venus is lifeless
For a planet named after the goddess of love, Venus is
something of a misfit. Its clouds of sulphuric acid, crushing
atmosphere of carbon dioxide and blast-furnace surface temperature
of 457°C are anything but lovely. Yet in its youth it was, like its
gentler sister Earth, swathed in oceans that provided a suitable breeding ground for
life. What went wrong?
Since 1962 more than 30 spacecraft have made the trip to Venus, seeking to
understand Earth's nearest neighbour and so-called twin planet. The most recent of
these, Venus Express, was launched by the European Space Agency in 2005. In the
current issue of Nature, nine papers report what it has found so far.
Earth and Venus are supposed to have started out much the same. The Earth's
oceans teemed with plants and animals that converted most of its atmospheric carbon
dioxide into carbonates and sank to the bottom as they died, to become sedimentary
rocks. By contrast, Venus lost most of its liquid water. That is because Venus, being
closer to the sun, started to warm up. This generated more water vapour in its
atmosphere, further increasing the temperature in a runaway greenhouse effect.
Planetary scientists have also long blamed Venus's sterility on the lack of an
internal magnetic field. The sun zaps its planetary neighbours with the “solar wind”, a
stream of highly energetic charged particles. Damaging cosmic rays also bombard the
planets. The Earth is protected from much of this radiation because it has an internal
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magnetic field that generates a protective magnetosphere. But Venus has no such
protection, possibly because it does not rotate much.
Yet Venus does still manage to avoid much of the bombardment. The solar
wind itself carries a magnetic field all the way to Venus where it encounters the
planet's electrically charged upper atmosphere, or ionosphere. Venus's ionosphere is
highly conductive, with the solar wind not being able to penetrate it at any time. Like
a boat trying to cut through the ocean waves, the induced magnetic fields pile up
where the solar wind meets Venus's ionosphere. The solar wind fluctuates in strength,
but is prevented from entering both when it is strong and when it is weak.
On the dark side of the planet things are much quieter. Shielded from the
buffeting of the solar wind, ions quietly leak out of the atmosphere. Oxygen,
hydrogen and helium ions - remnants of early oceans - are escaping into space. The
two sisters may have started as twins but, as they have grown older, they have grown
apart.
3. Read the article carefully and mark the statements as true (T) or False
(F).
a) Venus, named after the goddess of love, justifies its given name.
b) The surface temperature of Venus is approximately the same as on Earth.
c) Earlier the planet provided a suitable breeding ground for life.
d) About 30 spacecraft have made the trip to Venus to explore it.
e) More water evaporation in the atmosphere results in increasing the
temperature in a runway greenhouse effect.
f) Venus’s sterility is one of the reasons for the lack of an internal magnetic
field.
The Economist
g) Solar wind is a stream of highly energetic charged particles.
h) Unlike Venus, Earth generates a protective magnetosphere.
4. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations.
a) испаряться
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b) внутреннее магнитное поле
c) солнечный ветер
d) поток энергетически заряженных частиц
e) вращаться
f) преобразовывать
g) исчезать
h) остатки
5. Translate into English using Participles and Participial Constructions
where possible.
Новый чудо-металл не ржавеет, и его легко можно отливать в нужную
Металл прочнее титана
форму, словно пластмассу. Он не нуждается в машинной обработке, когда
изделие отлито. Его очертания точны, а поверхность - безупречно гладкая. Если
бы среди металлов выбирали "супер-героя", то все лавры, наверняка, достались
бы именно этому. Так что же это за металл? По-английски он называется
"ликвид-металл", от слова "жидкий". А назвали его так потому, что аморфное
расположение атомов в этом металле напоминает именно жидкость. И у этого
"жидкого металла" есть все шансы на то, чтобы в перспективе буквально
революционизировать нашу промышленность. По-русски такие материалы
называют обычно "аморфными металлическими сплавами с неупорядоченным
расположением атомов в пространстве" или "металлическим стеклом".
http://anomalia.kulichki.ru/text6/189.htm
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SELF-ASSESSMENT VII
1. Translate the article using a dictionary. Pay attention to the Non-Finite
forms of the verb.
Engineering ceramics based on silicon nitride are well known as low-density
materials with high strength and toughness. With the combination of these properties,
silicon nitride ceramics are an ideal candidate for several structural and functional
applications. However, because of the relatively high brittleness of ceramics there is a
continual need to improve their mechanical characteristics. At the same time,
intensive research is being performed to improve the thermal and electrical properties
of ceramics. In general, there are two ways to improve the mechanical properties of
ceramics: controlling the microstructure, and preparation of the composite.
In connection to the microstructure–property relationship, new observations
have been performed on structural and morphological development of silicon nitride
ceramics. The development of an interlocking microstructure of elongated grains was
found to be vital to ensure that this family of ceramics has good damage tolerance. A
fast (within minutes) in situ formation of a tough microstructure has been observed
by a so-called dynamic Ostwald ripening process resulting from the rapid heating
rate. In this way, through formation of a tough interlocking microstructure,
mechanical properties may be improved.
On the other hand, physical and mechanical properties of ceramics can be
improved through nanocomposite processing. To increase the fracture toughness,
various energy-dissipating components have been incorporated into ceramic matrices.
These secondary constituents can be introduced in whisker, platelet, particle or fiber
forms. Depending on processing route, micro/nano or nano/nano type microstructures
can be synthesized, and silicon nitride–silicon carbide nanocomposites have been
developed, which retained high strength and good oxidation resistance up to 1400 C.
Moreover, through nanocomposite processing not only the high-temperature
properties may be improved, but high-performance structural materials can be
synthesized. From the literature, several methods are known for porous ceramic
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preparation, such as partial sintering or using sintering additives with high melting
points to hinder the sintering process. It has been reported that by the addition of
small amounts of carbon, high-porosity silicon nitride composites with low shrinkage
have been realized. This process involved the formation of SiC particles at the grain
boundaries, which inhibited the rearrangement of Si3N4 particles during sintering,
assuring high porosity.
Sanjay K. Mazumdar, Ph.D. COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING
48
1. Read the article and match the questions A-E with paragraphs 1-5.
A. Do you carve the stools by hand?
B. Are Christmas trees difficult to work with?
C. Do you feel that way about all pine?
D. Are you interested in the emotional connection people have with their
Christmas trees?
E. How did you happen to start working with Christmas trees?
A Designer Who Gives Christmas Trees an Afterlife
UNIT EIGHT
Many people feel a sense of regret when it comes time to
dispose of a Christmas tree. After being decorated and celebrated, the
tree is unceremoniously abandoned, which can seem both heartless
and wasteful.
Fabien Capello, a French designer who lives in London, decided to do
something about that. Since 2009, Mr. Capello has been making furniture out of
Christmas trees he finds on the street.
(1) ___________________________________________________________
When I was still a student at the Royal College of Art in London, I, basically,
started an investigation on where the wood in D.I.Y. shops and wood suppliers was
actually coming from, and how it ended up in the city. During my research, I saw
some facts about Christmas trees, saying it was the moment when the biggest amount
of wood was shipped into the city. You can find different facts and numbers, but most
of them say that around a million trees arrive, every year, in London. And I just
thought that was quite an amazing thing, because at the end of the festive period,
after Christmas and New Year’s Eve you can find them in the streets because people
are just throwing them away.
(2)_____________________________________________________________
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There is this idea that you actually buy a tree and cherish it so much for a short
period of time, and then you just throw it away. I thought it would be quite interesting
to use this material. I wanted to do something that could come back into the house.
(3)_____________________________________________________________
It’s quite an ugly wood, actually. It’s probably one of the ugliest trees ever, if
you just see the trunk. Because it grows so fast, there is almost no grain. I did
experiments to turn the trees into wood, removing the bark and doing this sort of
chopping, which is the pattern on the legs. So I’ve been finding all sorts of techniques
to work with it.
(4)_____________________________________________________________
No. Christmas trees are the wood that we consume at the youngest stage of the
tree, because they are only two or three years old. You need time to get a beautiful
wood — a tree needs to grow, and it can take 100 years sometimes. This one is really,
really quite fast-growing, which is why it’s not quite so beautiful.
(5)_____________________________________________________________
Yes. Some of them, the carving is made with a machine, but everything is
controlled by the hand. It’s very simple tools, like a belt sander, a band saw and a
drill.
The New York Times
2. Read the article again and match the italicized words and word
combinations with their meanings.
a) a formal inquiry or systematic study _______________________________
b) to get rid of by throwing away or giving or selling to someone else
_______
c) producing (an object, inscription, or design) by cutting into a hard material
___________________________________
d) the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order
to establish facts and reach new conclusions __________________________
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