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Unit 1. What Is A System?
21
WRITING
23. Annotate text B. Use these clichés:
As the title implies the text describes ...
It is spoken in detail about…
The text gives valuable information on…
The text is of interest to …
SPEAKING
Describing anything as a system
24. Describe a computer, a thermos, a greenhouse, a glass of water or
anything you want as a system.
Use this plan: 1. Constituent parts. 2. Boundary. 3. Environment. 4. Type
(open, closed, isolated). 5. Transfer of matter/energy.
The Supplementary reading section may help you.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
EARTH AS A SYSTEM. CLOSED BUT NOT ISOLATED
The Earth itself can be viewed as a system distinct from the space and
celestial bodies that surround it. As discussed during the definition of open,
closed, and isolated systems, the Earth, in this context, is generally viewed as a
closed system. For the most part, materials do not flow freely into and out of the
Earth system. Most of the space around the Earth system is devoid of matter, and
gravity keeps the Earth's atmosphere, land masses, and bodies of water from
drifting away into outer space. There are, of course, exceptions. Meteoroids and
comets occasionally cross paths with the Earth and either burn up in the atmosphere or impact the surface (sometimes with dire consequences, as the dinosaurs
would likely attest). And, once in a great while, such impacts impart enough energy into surface materials to eject them into outer space. On a much smaller
scale, molecules in the Earth's upper atmosphere sometimes receive sufficient
energy from various solar and cosmic events such that they escape the Earth's
gravity and, hence, exit the Earth system. However, for the most part, matter does
not freely flow into and out of the Earth system.
Energy, on the other hand, does – that is why the Earth is not generally
thought of as an isolated system. Radiant energy from the Sun falls on the Earth
System analyses and control
22
every day, providing light and warmth. Some of this light is reflected away from
the Earth back into space. And, the Earth radiates some of its heat back into space
as well. But, heat and light are not the only forms of energy to freely flow into
and out of the Earth system. Gravitational energy also freely flows into and out
of the Earth system. The Earth's gravity is what holds the moon in orbit around
our planet. And, the moon's gravity is primarily what generates the tides in the
Earth's oceans and lakes. Like gravity, electromagnetic energy also freely flows
into and out of the Earth system. Light, which we have already mentioned, is
actually one frequency-class of electromagnetic radiation. But, there are many
other frequency-classes of electromagnetic radiation such as radiowaves, microwaves, and x-rays. Every day, the Earth is bombarded by such radiation from the
Sun and other stars. And, every day, radio, TV, and microwave broadcasts from
the Earth radiate out toward those stars. The Earth may be a closed system, but
it certainly is not an isolated system.
The health of our system, the sustainability of our system, depends on
having the right things flowing into and out of our system at the right rates. So,
for instance, in our analogy to the human body, if we do not take in enough food,
water, nutrients, air, and/or heat, we grow weak and die. If we don't excrete a
sufficient amount of solid waste, liquid waste, carbon dioxide, and/or heat, we
will grow uncomfortable, get sick, and ultimately die. Our system's resilience to
fluctuations in these input and output rates depends upon our ability to store energy and waste. But, what if the human body suddenly became a closed system?
Then, we could only exchange heat with our environment. Our resilience to this
state of affairs would only last as long as our least storable input or output. And,
since the human body stores inhaled oxygen and exhaled carbon dioxide for the
least amount of time, we would only last as a closed system for as long as we
could hold our breath.
Now, as discussed above, Earth is a closed system. Fortunately, Earth's
ability to store energy and waste is almost unimaginably larger than the human
body's. Unfortunately, as a closed system, it cannot, for the most part, exchange
material inputs and outputs with any outside systems – only things like electromagnetic energy and gravitational energy. So, when processes, like life, within
the Earth system transform certain key resources like water or oxygen into some
other form or activity while producing waste products in the process, there is no
way to directly replenish these resources from outside the system (assuming that
Unit 1. What Is A System?
23
the system remains closed). The Earth cannot simply drink up more water or
breath in more oxygen from outside itself the way the human body can. Similarly,
the Earth has no way to move waste products outside itself. The human body can
exhale carbon dioxide into its surroundings, the Earth system cannot. In the
Earth's closed system, as resources are transformed into other forms and activity,
they tend to be exhausted while waste products simply build up. Fortunately,
however, the Earth is not an isolated system.
As noted earlier, the Earth still receives inflows of electromagnetic and
gravitational energy from outside itself. Let's focus on the electromagnetic inflows for a second. These inflows predominantly come to the Earth as sunlight
from our sun. Through photosynthesis, plants receive this external inflow of energy and use it to convert carbon dioxide back into oxygen. To the extent that
animals within the Earth system would consider oxygen to be a resource and
carbon dioxide to be a waste product, plants, by harnessing the sun's energy inflow into the Earth system, are able to convert a waste product back into a resource. If enough plants can harness the sun's energy fast enough, they can reverse the carbon dioxide waste from the animals at a rate commensurate with the
animals' production of such waste – enabling an indefinite balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide within the Earth system. Had the Earth been an isolated
system and not just a closed system, plants could not have tapped the sun's energy
inflow and reversed the buildup of carbon dioxide waste from animals. Once the
Earth's stores of oxygen, and its ability to store carbon dioxide, were exhausted,
it would cease to support life. Hence, while not as advantageous as being an open
system, the Earth's closed system status still offers it a chance for renewal by
taking advantage of the energy inflows that still occur from outside itself. As an
isolated system, the Earth would have no such chance for renewal.
So, in analyzing problems within the closed Earth system, we might want
to try asking and answering the following questions: (1) Is the problem connected
with a diminishing scarce resource, an increasing waste product/pollutant, or
both? (2) How long will it take before the Earth system's storage capacity for that
resource and/or waste product is exhausted relative to the livable limits for the
system's inhabitants? (3) Given sufficient energy, is there a way to renew the
scarce resource and/or reduce the pollutant level by transforming the waste product into the resource? (4) Can the energy inflow into the Earth system be tapped
to provide the energy needed to achieve this transformation? (5) If so, will the
System analyses and control
24
transformation occur at a rate greater than the rate at which the Earth system's
storage capacity for that resource and/or waste product is being exhausted? These
five questions help us examine and understand some of the most pressing environmental/resource-related problems facing our society.
The model below illustrates the
concept of Earth as a closed system. Our
atmosphere (represented by the jar) allows sunlight to enter but prevents other
substances such as water from escaping.
As a result, we are limited to the resources that we currently have inside
this system. All of the living processes
on Earth occur within this closed system, so a change in one part of the system can have an effect on other parts of
the system.
Unit 2. General Systems Theory (GST)
25
UNIT 2
GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY (GST)
All things by immortal power
Near or far
Hiddenly
To each other linked are
That thou canst not stir a flower
Without troubling of a star.
F. Thompson, 1897
LEAD IN
1. What do you know about GST? Choose the correct answer.
1. The general systems theory (GST) was established as a field of research
in the 20’s/50’s/80’s.
2. The most commonly referred father of GST is W. Ross Ashby/Ludwig
von Bertalanffy/Newton.
3. GST have strong bonds to Cybernetics/History/Sociology.
4. "The whole is more than the sum of its parts," This statement belongs
to Plato/ Nicholas of Cusa/Aristotle.
PRONONCIATION
2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly:
assumption [ə'sʌmpʃn]
axiom ['æksɪəm]
chaos ['keɪɒs]
consequence ['kɒnsɪkwəns]
assertion [ə'sɜ:ʃn]
hierarchy ['haɪrɑ:kɪ]
perspective [pə'spektɪv]
characteristic [kærɪktə'rɪstɪk]
equilibrium [i:kwɪ'lɪbrɪəm]
requisite ['rekwɪzɪt]
initial [ɪ'nɪʃl]
convergence [kən'vɜ:dʒǝns]
divergence [daɪ'vɜ:dʒǝns]
macrocosm ['mækrəʋkɒzǝm]
WORD STUDY
The following words and phrases will help you to understand the text.
3. Can you guess the meaning of each term from the context? Try to
match each term with its definition.
System analyses and control
26
1. Many scientific assumptions about Mars were wrong.
2. A logical approach to the problem.
3. "The sense of guilt is the hallmark of civilized humanity" (Theodor
Reik).
4. Holism holds that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
5. A system that is in equilibrium shows no tendency to alter over time.
6. The concept of entropy has also entered the domain of sociology, gen-
erally as a metaphor for chaos, disorder or dissipation of energy.
7. Feedback is not the term for a response to a stimulus rather for the cir-
cularity implied in both.
8. The dialectic of Cosmos and Chaos is one of the most puzzling ques-
tions in Greek philosophy.
9. The following laws of physics are considered fundamental, but many of
them refer to idealized, closed systems, which are hard to obtain in the real world.
10. A related aspect of cosmic order is that ranging from the smallest atoms
to the largest galaxies nothing appears to be at rest in the Universe.
11. The Greek word telos means end or goal. Teleological means end-di-
rected.
1. assumption
2. cosmos
3. approach
4. hallmark
5. holism
6. equilibrium
7. entropy
8. chaos
9. low
10. order
11. feedback
12. teleology
a. A philosophical position claiming that wholes cannot
be taken apart and that every apparent whole can be understood only in the context of the larger whole containing it.
b. The study of ends, goals and purposes.
c. A state or condition in which everything is in its right
place and functioning properly.
d. A fact or statement (as a proposition, axiom, postu-
late, or notion) taken for granted.
e. Something that sets apart an individual from others of
the same kind.
f. A statement describing a relationship observed to be
invariable between or among phenomena for all cases in
which the specified conditions are met.
g. An orderly harmonious systematic universe.
h. The degree of disorder or uncertainty in a system.
i. Information about the results of a process which is
used to change the process itself.
j. A particular way, method of thinking about or dealing
with something.
Unit 2. General Systems Theory (GST)
27
k. Extreme confusion or disorder.
l. Balance of forces acting on each other.
4. Match the following word combinations with their equivalents in
Russian.
1. presumed existence
2. highly valuable aids
3. basic assumptions
4. subatomic particles
5. a decision maker
6. holistic properties
7. different initial conditions
8. given initial state
9. mutually exclusive
a. лицо, принимающее решение
b. предполагаемое существование
c. разные начальные условия
d. холистические свойства
e. очень ценные средства
f. субатомные частицы
g. основные предположения
h. взаимоисключающий
i. определенное начальное состояние
5. Match the following words with their synonyms.
1. feature
2. basic
3. cosmos
4. embody
5. prove
6. common
7. novel adj
8. eliminate
9. affect
10. attain
11. irregularity
a. reach
b. exclude
c. fundamental
d. quality
e. confirm
f. influence
g. universe
h. new
i. incorporate
j. general
k. chaos
6. Match the following words with their antonyms.
1. order
2. cosmos
3. abstract
4. simple
5. upward
6. include
7. internal
8. maximize
9. closed
10. dynamic
a. downward
b. external
c. chaos
d. static
e. randomness
f. open
g. minimize
h. exclude
i. concrete
j. complex
System analyses and control
28
7. Jumbled words. Rearrange the letters to make words. The definitions
will help you.
yteohr
An imaginative formulation of apparent relationships or underlying principles of certain observed phenomena.
maiox
An established principle or law of a science.
ncocpte
An idea or thought, esp. a generalized idea of a thing or class of
things; abstract notion.
csiecen
Systematized knowledge derived from observation, study, and
experimentation carried on in order to determine the nature or
principles of what is being studied.
reegyn
The capacity for doing work.
amtetr
What all (material) things are made of; whatever occupies space
and is perceptible to the senses in some way.
uesr
A person or thing that uses something.
sreutl
Anything that comes about as a consequence or outcome of some
action, process, etc.
rdsegine
A person who designs.
aglo
End toward which effort is directed.
emhotd
A way of doing anything.
8. Word search. Find 10 verbs. Horizontally & Vertically only.
I I D E N T I F Y R N F E C H P R O V E C O T H L K E G D
A
L B E A M R F L O
C
U T C N S O L V E H D A T G V Y E T D
M
E I T E U D C M J
E
I N D I C A T E T
U
Unit 2. General Systems Theory (GST)
29
WORD BUILDING
SUFFIX “−ize”
The suffix “-ize” is used to form verbs from nouns or adjectives, the verbs
having the sense of "to make what is denoted by the noun/adjective”.
9. Match the verbs with their meaning.
1. criticize
2. summarize
3. synthesize
4. organize
5. generalize
6. characterize
7. conceptualize
8. maximize
9. analyze
10. specialize
a. to analyze and judge as a critic
b. to make special, specific, or particular
c. to describe or portray the particular qualities, features of
d. to make a summary of; state briefly
e. to form a concept or idea of
f. to make general
g. to bring together into a whole by synthesis
h. to increase to the maximum
i. to arrange in an orderly way
j. to examine in detail so as to determine the nature of
10. Complete the chart.
verb
noun
adjective
add
behavioral
developmental
express
prefer
attractiveness
apply
differentiable
decide
transformation
GRAMMAR FOCUS
Before reading the text, revise the grammar material (§ 2 MODALS,
p135) and do the exercises.
11. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. In a certain sense it can be said that the notion of system is as old as
European philosophy.
System analyses and control
30
2. Different and partly opposing approaches should, however, tend toward
further integration.
3. Certain typical ways of describing "systems" can be indicated.
4. A system may be defined as a set of elements standing in interrelation
among themselves and with the environment.
5. This can be expressed mathematically in different ways.
6. Several typical ways of system description can be indicated.
7. Problems must be intuitively "seen" and recognized before they can be
formalized mathematically.
8. What is to be defined and described as system is not a question with an
obvious or trivial answer.
9. We may first distinguish real systems existing independently of an ob-
server.
10. Using these tools, formal system components and their relationships can
be defined.
12. Underline the correct modal verb and translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. In order to understand an organized whole we must/can know both the
parts and the relations between them.
2. The significance of the General System Theory may/must be character-
ized in different ways.
3. General System Theory should/has to be an important regulative device
in science.
4. General System Theory is/can to replace that field which is known as
‘theory of categories’ by an exact system of logico-mathematical laws.
5. In fact, closed systems must/should eventually reach a state of equilib-
rium, according to the second law of thermodynamics.
6. Open systems may/must, provided certain conditions are given, attain a
stationary state.
7. Analysis shows that closed systems cannot/mustn’t behave equifinally.
8. Therefore, the total change of entropy can/should be negative as well as
positive.
9. These ideas can/has to be used as a core of a system model describing
a system.
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