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Файл:Professional English for Civil Engineers. Educational and methodical manual.pdf
gy to come from renewable sources by 2030. Cities are setting lofty targets, too. New York is aiming
for carbon-free electricity by 2040; Los Angeles, for zero-emissions buildings by 2050.
Homeowners are also being urged to go green. In Britain energy-performance requirements
for new homes will be dramatically tightened from 2025. In Italy the government has pledged to co ver
the full cost of green renovations, plus an extra 10 % to incentivise those still unsure about switching, through tax deductions of up to €100.000 ($104.000) per home. More than €1 bn has been paid
out since the scheme was launched in July 2020.
Even so, progress is slow. To meet the goals of the Paris climate agreement, global emissions
must hit net zero between 2050 and 2070. Today, less than 1 % of buildings are net-zero. Nudging
homeowners is proving challenging. Total greenhouse-gas emissions for American houses have fal len
by 2 % since 2005, versus the 7 % that would be consistent with the Paris agreement, according to Citigroup, a bank. This is mirrored in many big economies. In Britain the CO2-equivalent emissions
of homes fell by around 1m tonnes between 2018 and 2019 – less than half the cuts made by the transport sector.
Three obstacles make it harder to build sustainably. First, the property industry has focused almost entirely on making buildings more efficient to run at the expense of embodied carbon emissions. As a result, little progress has been made on monitoring and restricting embodied carbon.
Britain, for example, has passed legislation requiring new homes to produce at least 75 % less carbon from 2025. Yet it places no limits on the upfront carbon emissions needed to build or dispose
of them.
There are exceptions. The Netherlands has required whole-life carbon assessments for some large
buildings since 2013. California imposes carbon-intensity limits on certain construction materials.
For now, embodied carbon accounts for a smaller share of global emissions than the operational sort.
But that will change as buildings become more energy-efficient. In many modern buildings, embodied carbon already represents as much as half of total lifetime emissions.
The second hurdle is the indestructible appeal of the wrecking ball. The building sector would
sooner knock down a structure than reuse it, resulting in a carbon-intensive cycle of demolition
and construction. This is partly because the cost of revamping properties often exceeds their value. Tax structures across the rich world incentivise demolition over reuse. For example, until March
2022 most new buildings in Britain were exempt from value-added tax, while most renovation and repairs were liable for VAT at 20 %. VAT has since been scrapped on some energy-efficiency measures
but will rise from 2027.
This economic model is costly for the planet. Construction gobbles up nearly all of the world’s cement, half of all steel production and around a quarter of aluminium output and plastics, all of which
spew vast amounts of emissions a year. In the process, construction generates around a third of the
EU’s waste, measured by weight. In Britain construction, demolition and excavation amounts to nearly two-thirds of all waste produced.
Pockets of the sector are innovating. Startups, venture capitalists and some cement-makers are all
looking either to replace concrete or to make it greener. New methods such as modular construction,
which reduces waste by assembling components in a factory before moving them on-site, are also
gaining traction. Nearly half of new homes in Finland, Norway and Sweden are factory-built.
Yet the overall pace of innovation is desultory, because of a third obstacle: the chronically under-
whelming productivity of the construction sector as a whole. Global productivity growth in the industry has long lagged behind that of the wider economy. Building methods for new homes have barely evolved in over a century. At the same time, the pandemic has exacerbated long-standing labour
shortages in construction. The sector was already struggling to produce enough tradespeople skilled
in building sustainably.
Meanwhile, calls to go green will only grow more urgent. Population growth and voracious demand for housing mean the size of the built environment is expanding at a faster rate than efforts
to slash energy use. An explosion of new buildings in China, South-East Asia and Africa will continue to fuel construction. In these places, more than half of all buildings that will exist 30 years from
11
now have not yet been built. If the world is to reach net-zero emissions, the construction sector will
need to make enormous strides – and fast.
(From the Economist, June 15th, 2022 [2])
Task 8. Match the words or expressions from the text to their synonyms.
1) carbon footprint a) ambitious goals, daunting missions, imposing aims, rigorous goals
2) renewable energy b) devour, ingest, consume, swallow, gulp down
3) obsolete
4) lofty target d) outdated, outmoded, archaic, out-of-date, outworn, defunct
5) green renovation e) redeveloping, refurbishing, rejuvenating, remodeling, upgrading
6) revamping f) aimless, cursory, erratic, supercial, unsystematic
7) gobble up g) green house emission, carbon dioxide emission, carbon cost, engine pollutant
8) desultory
c) sustainable energy, energy produced from renewable resources, alternative
power source
h) home energy retrot, low carbon home makeover, energy-ecient home upgrade, eco-conscious energy renovation
Task 9. Find the correct meaning of abbreviations related to standardization.
1. LEED:
a) Leadership in Energy Ecien-
cy and Development
b) Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design
c) Leading Environmental
and Ecological Design
2. IBC:
a) International Building Code b) International Building Contract c) Industrial Building Company
3. USGBC:
a) Unied Standards for Green
Building Construction
b) The United States Green
Building Council
c) The United States and Great
Britain Codes
4. ISO:
a) The Industrial Standards
Organization
b) The International Space
Organization
c) The International Organization
for Standardization
5. ILFI:
a) The International Legal
and Financial Institution
b) The Indian Law
and Finance Institute
c) The International Living Future
Institute
6. ZEC:
a) Zero Emission of Carbon b) Zero Energy Certication c) Zambia Energy Certicate
7. GGB C:
a) The Green Globes Building
Certication
b) The Green Gas Building
Codes
c) The Global Green Building
Codes
Task 10. Read the text and fill in the gaps with the words and expressions from the box below.
(a) culprits (b) wreckage (c) housing estate (d) debris (e) comply
(f) permits (g) building codes (h) amnesties (i) urban planners (j) buckling
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Text 5
Devastating earthquakes in Turkey show the deadly violation
of building codes and regulations
When the devastating catastrophe struck Turkey on February 6th 2023, thousands of buildings
collapsed like a house of cards, burying the residents under the concrete (1) __________________.
The building appeared to have fallen in a “pancake collapse”. Mrs Sen, the head of local cham-
ber of architects, arrived at the place of the (2) ________________. “There’s no reinforced steel
here”, she states, “as soon as the ground started to shake, the concrete lost its structural strength
and the columns just collapsed. If we used 100 tonnes of iron in a building, they would use only 90
tonnes”. Many contractors in Turkey were undercutting construction costs and simply neglecting
(3) ________________ and regulations for years.
The death toll has already accounted for 36,000 people in Turkey and another 6,000 in Syria,
while the rescue effort resembles more of a mass exhumation. Across the country, millions of people
from affected regions sleep in the tents provided by the emergency agency, in schools, mosques, libraries or even in their cars. Only few dare enter their homes. Rescue teams took days to reach the remote cities. But the voiced of survivors trapped under the debris had given way to silence.
Who are the real (4) ________________ of disaster?
Shoddy building methods, corruption and bad policymaking, components of an economy powered
by construction and rent-seeking, may have caused the most deaths, however. The government of Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Turkey’s president, bears much of the blame, analysts say. But so do its predecessors, as well as municipalities, developers and (5) ________________. “This is a perfect crime,”
says Murat Guvenc, an urban planner. “Everybody has their finger in the pie.”
Turkey has strict building codes, adopted in the wake of an earthquake that killed 18,000 people on the outskirts of Istanbul in 1999 and updated five years ago. Under an urban-renewal scheme
thought up by Mr. Erdogan’s government, more than 3 m housing units have been renewed.
The problems lie in implementation and oversight. Building (6) ________________ are easy to acquire, and inspections weak. The companies that are mandated to carry them out are paid by the developers. Projects usually comply with government standards at the start of construction, but not
by the end, says Mr. Guvenc. When the inspectors leave, developers may reduce the amount of iron
they use or cut down on the number of stirrups, the steel loops that prevent beams and columns from
(7) ________________ under pressure. They may even tack on an extra floor. Then they enter informal negotiations with local authorities. “A lot of money may end up changing hands,” says Mr. Guvenc. “We are talking about corruption par excellence.”
This means the difference between life and death. In Osmaniye, as elsewhere, most of the collapsed buildings date back to before the 1999 earthquake. But scores of new ones have also come
down. A luxury (8) ________________ completed only a decade ago in Antakya, south of Osmaniye, has entombed perhaps hundreds of people. The contractor responsible was arrested on February
11th while attempting to leave Turkey. In nearby Erzin county, however, not one building collapsed.
The local mayor and his predecessor told local media that they did not allow any illegal construction.
Both used the same phrase: “My conscience is clear.”
Construction amnesties, which allow owners to register unlicensed properties in exchange
for a fine, made a bad situation much worse. Mr. Erdogan’s government passed several such
(9) ________________, the latest in 2018, ahead of general elections. The opposition backed
the move, because it was popular with voters. The government reaped the political dividends, while
millions of property owners ended up paying into state coffers and assuming the risk. A year later, Mr. Erdogan appeared in Kahramanmaras, proudly announcing that the programme “had solved
the problems” of 144,000 of the city’s residents. More than half of the country’s housing stock did not
(10) ________________ with building standards, the programme revealed.
“Look”, says Mrs. Sen, pointing to what remains of her old neighbourhood, “if these buildings
that were legally built and approved by the municipality at the time collapsed, then how can the ille-
13
gal ones survive?” Things need to change from the top down, says her husband. Politics must stay out
of urban development; supervision must dramatically improve and the patronage networks connecting the government and the construction sector must be broken up. “Otherwise,” he says, “ten years
from now you’ll see the same scenes you see here somewhere else”.
(Abridged from the Economist, February 12th, 2023. [3])
Task 11. Read the text and fill in the gaps with the words and expressions from the box below.
(a) culprits (b) wreckage (c) housing estate (d) debris (e) comply
(f) permits (g) building codes (h) amnesties (i) urban planners (j) buckling
Task 12. Explain the meaning of the expression and the idiom from the text: “Pancake collapse”,
“Everybody has their finger in the pie”. Compose your own sample sentences with these expressions.
1.3. Metrology as a science. Measurements
Task 13. Choose the correct answer for each definition from the box below.
The science of weights and measures covering all related aspects, from defining measuring units
to accurate measurements.
a) assessment b) metrology c) valuation
The branch of metrology focused on developing and maintaining measurement standards, deals
with the highest levels of precision and accuracy.
a) industrial metrology b) scientific metrology c) legal metrology
The discrepancy between the true value and the measured value.
a) precision b) error of measurement c) accuracy
The degree to which the measured value of a characteristic correlates with the true value.
a) accuracy b) instrumental error c) omission
The basis for quantifying physical properties.
a) measurement activities b) units of measurement c) measuring instruments
Physical objects or systems that determine units.
a) measurement standards b) consistent measurements c) International System of Units
An error caused by unpredictable variations in the process of measurement.
a) systematic error b) run-time error c) random error
The instrument used for measuring length and diameter.
a) rangender b) scales c) caliper
The instrument for measuring fluid pressure.
a) micrometer b) pressure gauge c) thermometer
The procedure essential to maintain measurement accuracy.
a) calibration b) adjustment c) evaluation
14
Text 6
Concrete Surface Morphology and Fundamental Scales
Concrete’s composition shores up its morphology. Concrete is a material defined as being
heterogeneous, multi-scale, and multi-phasic with high mobility. At ambient temperatures, concrete is a fast phase-transitional material with exothermic thermodynamics. Four fundamental scales of concrete morphology have previously been determined. The macro-scale measures
range of over 1 m and mainly studies coarse aggregates dispersed in a cement paste. The mesoscale ranges from 1 mm to 1 m and applies to measurements of sand and coarse aggregate with
a defined shape dispersed in a paste. The micro-scale ranges from 1 μm to 1 mm and measures
the same as the mesoscale in addition to cement particles. The fourth scale, the nanoscale, ranges between 1 nm
Recent years have seen an increasing need for investigated structures at smaller scales. New technologies are using fine powders and nanoparticles in various applications, including construction
and concrete, making smaller scales of concrete morphology increasingly important.
The morphology of concrete can be marked off as internal (spatial), external (superficial), and as
interfaces and interphases. Internal morphology relies on the characterization of microstructural
types or the definition of the form of various heterogeneities, such as the degree of anisotropy, number of phases, and density of boundaries. The technique of external morphology defines the border,
frontier, and limits of the concrete material.
Finally, interfaces and interphases can also be used to determine concrete’s morphology. The relationship between the three phasic dynamic interfaces involved in the solidification process (solid/liquid, gas/liquid and gas/solid phases) are looked into.
.
Fundamental Denitions of Concrete Surface Metrology
In their paper, the team, led by scientists at the Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
explains that methods of measuring the surface morphology of concrete can be categorized as either
tactile (contact) or non-contact methods. Tactile methods were initially developed in the mechanical
engineering field and, until recently, these methods dominated engineering activities. It can be concluded that of all metrological methods the parametric methodology has its origins in contact methodology.
Nowadays, scientists use a profilometer moving laterally over a specimen and registering
changes in the specimen’s surface. The tactile or contact method is simple and easy-to-use for obtaining a profile measurement. This equipment has become accessible in the laboratories all over
the world.
On the contrary, the methodology of non-contact methods is way more complex. A source of light
penetrating a sample of material through a narrow gap at angle of 45° is used in light microscopy. This
method has an advantage as no requirements are needed to touch or disturb the investigated surface.
However, the shortcoming of the method takes in the necessity to collect samples and transport them
as no in-situ analysis is available.
To conclude, the metrology of concrete surface morphology is generally accepted as a highly complex procedure. The researchers point up the importance of selecting the relevant method for assessing concrete surface morphology. With improved methodologies for exploring concrete surface morphology, the construction industry will surely capitalize on more durable buildings and structures
and a deeper understanding of concrete itself.
(Abridged from Sadowski, Ł., Hoła, J., Czarnecki, L. and Mathia, T., 2021.
New paradigm in the metrology of concrete surface morphology:
Methods, parameters and applications. Measurement, 169, p.108497
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0263224120310253 [4])
15
Task 14. Read the text and choose the correct synonyms to the phrasal verbs in Bold from the text.
1) to shore up а) to take advantage of, to benet, to prot by, to make the most of
2) to mark o b) to emphasize, to accent, to accentuate, to spotlight
3) to look into c) to incorporate, to include, to comprise, to encompass, to embrace
4) to take in d) to determine, to specify, to delineate, to outline, to identify
5) to point up e) to underpin, to support, to buttress, to reinforce
6) to capitalize on f) to investigate, to study, to research, to inspect, to scrutinize.
Task 15. Complete the sentences using the correct form of the word in brackets. Change the word
form if necessary.
Nondestructive metrology techniques are protable when it comes to analyzing ___________
1
materials, particularly concrete and pavement.
The system is particularly valuable when it is necessary to carry out metrological analysis
2
during mechanical testing, when it can gather 3D data on __________ and strains within a material.
___________ analyzing potholes is essential for proper pavement construction, maintenance
3
and rehabilitation because as pavement ages, potholes can point to structural aws of a roadway.
displace
accurate
build
Construction metrology standardization research currently focuses on terrestrial applica-
4
tions, but there is the potential for great monetary and eort ___________ through the creation
of open industry standards for space-based applications as well.
Techniques used in metrology are commonly derived from standard techniques such as under-
5
water acoustics ___________, total stations and level instruments but use more accurate versions or have measuring procedures that surpass those used in general surveying.
Terrestrial laser scanning is a state-of-the-art remote sensing technology that can rapidly ac-
6
quire accurate three-dimensional (3D) ___________ data.
The outdoor potential of laser scanning is shown by load test ___________ of two Danube
7
bridges.
With bre-optic deformation monitoring, cables can be ___________ in an object and left
8
alone to provide permanent deformation monitoring measurements.
Traditionally, such measurements are taken using total stations, whereby points are ___________
9
on the crest of the dam and inside the inspection corridors every three months.
Space based construction metrology has a great potential for monetary and eort savings
10.
through the ___________ and use of open industry standards to support construction automation in space.
save
position
space
measure
bed
survey
create
Task 16. Put the jumbled sentences from the text “Optical Metrology” in the correct order.
1. It works like this: capturing thousands of frames per second, modern optical systems incorpo-
rate stereo cameras for assessing both singular points and total surfaces.
2. This approach saves time, supplies useful data and can reveal optimal applications for ma-
terials.
3. For instance, if technicians want to examine the fiber-dominant mechanical qualities and the matrix-dominant qualities of a composite, total-surface data is required that can be easily acquired by an
optical system.
4. Optical 3D metrology can be applied to characterize the qualities of building materials.
5. Moreover, optical metrology can even provide data on unforeseen effects of mechanical testing.
The correct order of the sentences is: _________________________________.
16
Task 17. Put the jumbled sentences from the text “Generative AI in Metrology” in the correct
order. Explain in your own words the meaning of the expression “cornerstone of precision manufacturing”.
1. Generative AI transforms metrology by introducing dynamic data analytics tools improving
measurement accuracy, refining quality control, and meeting the growing complexity of modern
manufacturing demands.
2. A powerful offshoot of AI empowers manufacturers to integrate adaptive decision-making, advanced cost engineering, and efficient project management into metrology processes.
3. However, generative AI overcomes these challenges by synthesizing data from multiple sources, including historical measurements, live operational data, and environmental variables.
4. Metrology, the cornerstone of precision manufacturing, ensures product quality and consistenc y.
5. Metrology’s reliance on accurate measurements has traditionally depended on static data models but these models often fall short in dynamic manufacturing environments.
The correct order of the sentences is: _________________________________.
Task 18. Match the name of an electrical measuring instrument to its description. What other
electrical measuring devices do you know? Have you ever used them? Share your experience with
the groupmates.
а) It is used to measure the voltage potential of an electrical circuit or the potential dierence between two points. It can also be considered as an am-
1. Galvanometer
meter. It also measures the current; voltage is only measured when the current is transmitted in a circuit through resistance. These devices are capable
to measure the current, voltage and resistance. It is also termed as a high resistance ammeter
2. Voltmeter
3. Potentiometer
4. Wattmeter
5. Ohmmeter
6. Multi-meter
7. Ammeter
b) This instrument is used to measure power. It can be used to measure the average electric power in watts. It has two coils: they are current
and pressure coils. It also can be used to measure the gain in ampliers,
band winds in lters
c) This is an instrument that is used to measure the resistance accurately. It can be used to check the continuity of the electrical circuits and components. Series type devices are used to measure the high values while
the shunt type is used to measure low resistance values
d) It can be used to make various electrical measurements, AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It can do the combined functions
of voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. There are two types of the device –
analog and digital ones
e) This is the rst type of ammeter; it is used to detect and measure electric
current. It is an analog of electromechanical transducer which makes a ro-
tary deection in response to the electric current owing through the coil.
It can read direct current ow, the magnetic eld created as current ows
through a coil acts on a spring, which will move the needle indicator
f) This instrument is used to measure electric current in amperes in a branch
of an electric circuit. It should be placed in series with the measured branch
and it must have very low resistance
g) This is the instrument that can be used to measure the unknown voltage. The known voltage will be supplied from a standard cell or any other
known voltage reference source. The measurement has high accuracy because the it is done by the comparison method and the obtained result is not
by the deection of the pointer.
17
Task 19. Solve the crossword to revise your knowledge on the topic.
1 1
2 2
3
3
4 4
5 5
6
7
Across:
1. The process of updating and improving existing buildings or structures to enhance their functionality, aesthetics, and, consequently, value.
2. A branch of science and technology that is concerned with the principles of measurement.
3. A building or a structure that has reached the end of its current useful life.
4. A wide range of best practices that include fire suppression systems, implementing regular inspections on existing buildings, providing clear access to emergency exits, employing sustainable water and energy usage, etc.
5. A sudden structural failure of a building threatening human life and health, can be partial or
entire.
6. Abbreviation of certificate for energy and environmental design.
7. A building’s ability to support the structural load without breaking.
Down:
1. Controlling human or societal behavior by rules or legal restrictions imposed by governmental
authorities or professional bodies.
2. The external conditions, resources, stimuli, etc., with which an organism interacts.
3. Waste removal in the home, street sweepings, and litter collected in public places, overflowing
dustbins or bins that have been subjected to illegal dumping.
4. ______________________ bu i l d i n g i s t h e c o n c e p t o f c r e a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e a n d r e source-efficient structures and processes.
5. A set of regulations written by city or county officials with the help of construction pros that
governs the design, construction and modification of commercial buildings, homes and other structures in the jurisdiction.
18
2. CONSTRUCTION DESIGN OF BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
2.1. Fundamentals of construction design of buildings and structures
Task 20. Read the text and outline the most important information from it.
Text 7
Construction of any building or structure is not possible without a thoroughly drawn up project, which will take into consideration all the features of the object, its purpose, altitude, specifications of infrastructure, etc. The project is a set of activities that are carried out during the construction of any types of facilities: industrial, commercial, residential, public, and others. It is worked out
by qualified specialists with proper education, such as architects, builders, designers, as soon as both
the process of construction and its further successful commissioning directly depend on a competently developed and calculated project.
The project of a building or structure for the construction of a new object or reconstruction of an
old one contains text, graphic and calculation section, which take into account all the nuances of erection and operation, as well as engineering and technical characteristics.
The designing involves four basic steps:
1) collecting and expertise of documentation about the future facility and the site where it will
be erected. This is one of the most labour-intensive processes that involve close cooperation with local and regulatory authorities who coordinate permissions to conduct infrastructure, identify irregularities, and control compliance with fire regulations and sanitary norms and so on. The design team
takes into consideration a lot of important factors, including local conditions and features, a location
of interior spaces, heat levels, a number of occupants or employees in the building, and financial capabilities of the developer;
2) engineering-geodetic survey of the area depending on the specifics of the site. This step is obligatory to research the conditions for future construction: to determine possible deepening of the
structure, the impact of ground water on its reliability, the conditions for infrastructure;
3) preparation of design and working documentation, regulated by the Government Decree. Depending on the type of an object, it is obligatory to have appropriate blocks of theoretical information
describing in detail the architectural solution, overall information about the object, measures for fire
safety, environmental protection, etc.;
4) designing itself in close co-operation of specialists from different fields. Nowadays coherence
of all the actions is controlled by quick and reliable software, which minimises disagreements and inconsistences.
As a result of all those works a detailed project with extended graphic part and theoretical mate-
rial is formed.
Task 21. Match the following key words from the text to their definitions.
Word Denition
1) building a) buildings, equipment and services provided for a particular purpose
2) structure
3) facility
4) infrastructure
5) project e) the height of an object or structure above a reference level
6) design
b) (broadly) a piece of planned work or an activity that should be nished over a period of time and intended to achieve a particular purpose
c) a structure with walls and roof to give protection to people, animals and things
(for example: house, factory, station)
d) a drawing or set of drawings showing how a building is to be made and how it will
work and look
f) the arrangement or organization of parts within a system, something that has been
made or built from parts (for example: house, bridge, tunnel)
19
End of the table
7) documentation g) an order or statement of an ocial decision
h) the basic combination of all inner systems within a structure which are necessary
8) survey
9) decree i) ocial or legal documents that are needed in order to prove something
for its proper operation and application, especially running water, energy and means
of communication
10) altitude
j) the measuring and recording of the details of an area of land made by a specially
trained person
Task 22. Agree or disagree and correct by using sentences from the text and your own opinion.
Statement Agree Disagree
1. The process of designing is carried out in several stages, which are equally important in the construction of high-quality facilities.
2. All the stages occupy approximately the same amount of time and require the same set of operations.
3. Almost all of the modern design team’s work is carried out with the help
of specialized computer programs; manual labour is practically not used
while designing.
Task 23. Which of the designing stages is the most/the least attractive to you personally? Explain
your opinion.
Task 24. Read the text and outline the most important information from it.
Text 8
What does it “cost” to build a house?
Living in an own house is many citizens’ dream. To implement it is quite realistic, but one should
understand that it requires not only financial investment, but also knowledge of the subtleties of individual construction. It is vital to understand what the design of residential houses consists of, as soon
as there is a set of obligatory actions and very desirable stages that are worth including in the process
if you want the house to stand for decades.
Everything gets started with an architectural and construction project. This initial work is almost the most important, because it is a project that determines how a structure will look from inside
and outside, how strong and safe it will be and how long it will last. Also, thanks to a project a customer will be able to predict the cost of construction work and materials.
Several definite steps should be followed to develop a project.
The tasks of the pre-design works include finding out whether it is possible to implement
a project in life, identifying the likely difficulties that may hinder construction and estimation
of the approximate cost. For this purpose, specialists in surveying study the territory, carry out
geological research, draw up a terrain plan, while another working group prepares a number
of documents. It is necessary to make sure that the construction won’t violate sanitary, environmental, urban planning and other regulations, as well as that the project is justified from economic point of view.
At the step of preliminary project (which is not an obligatory component, but very helpful for both
customers and designers) an architect suggests an idea of the external appearance of a future house
by creating a sketch that shows how a structure looks from the outside, how rooms are located inside, what is the neighbourhood area. The specialist can also make a computer 3D-model to combine
all schemes and drawings which will help to see the results of the embodiment of the primary idea
and serve as a basis for design and working documentation.
20