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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_1100_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •Part I
- •Esophageal Surgery
- •Tracheo-Esophageal Fistula
- •Overview
- •Etiology
- •Clinical Presentation
- •Diagnosis
- •Management
- •Conservative Management
- •Endoscopic Management
- •Operative Management
- •Postesophagectomy TEF
- •Postintubation TEF
- •Bronchoesophageal Fistula
- •Prevention of Tracheoesophageal Fistula
- •Outcomes
- •Conclusion
- •Five Key Points to Avoid Complications
- •Five Key Points to Diagnose or Manage Complications Intra or Postoperatively
- •References
- •Esophageal Strictures Refractory to Endoscopic Dilatation
- •Introduction
- •Etiology of Esophageal Strictures
- •Treatment
- •Treatment of Benign Esophageal Strictures
- •Nonsurgical Options
- •Endoscopic Dilatation
- •Steroid Injection
- •Esophageal Stenting
- •Rendez-Vous Procedure
- •Incisional Therapy
- •Surgical Options
- •Antireflux Surgery for Peptic Strictures
- •Esophagectomy
- •Malignant Esophageal Strictures
- •Endoscopic Treatment
- •Dilatation
- •Stent Placement
- •Laser Therapy
- •Brachytherapy
- •Chemotherapy and Radiation Therapy
- •Surgical Treatment
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points for Avoiding Postsurgical Esophageal Strictures
- •Key Points for Managing Esophageal Strictures
- •References
- •Esophageal Anastomotic Leak
- •Introduction
- •Risk Factors for Anastomotic Leak
- •Presentation and Identification of a Leak
- •Prevention and Management of Anastomotic Leaks
- •Future Directions
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points on Avoiding an Esophageal Anastomotic Leak
- •Key Points on Diagnosis and Managing an Esophageal Anastomotic Leak
- •References
- •Transhiatal Esophagectomy—Intraoperative Disasters
- •Introduction
- •Preoperative Risk Factors for Bleeding with a THE
- •General Considerations
- •Anesthetic Considerations
- •Conduct of the Operation
- •Bleeding Scenarios During THE
- •Tracheal Tear
- •Summary
- •Key Points: Avoiding Catastrophic Complications—Mediastinal Bleeding and Airway Injury—During Transhiatal Esophagectomy
- •Key Points: Diagnosing and Managing Catastrophic Complications—Mediastinal Bleeding and Airway Injury—During Transhiatal Esophagectomy
- •References
- •Chyle Leak After Esophageal Surgery
- •Introduction
- •Historical Review
- •Basic Science
- •Embryology
- •Anatomy
- •Physiology
- •Composition of Chyle
- •Chylothorax
- •Etiology/Cause
- •Post-esophagectomy Chylothorax
- •Diagnosis
- •Clinical Features
- •Fluid Studies
- •Imaging
- •Treatment
- •Conservative Management
- •Surgical Management
- •Summary
- •Key Points on Avoiding an Esophageal Anastomotic Leak
- •Key Points on Diagnosis and Managing an Esophageal Anastomotic Leak
- •References
- •Evaluation of the Vocal Cords
- •Treatment of Unilateral Vocal Cord Dysfunction
- •Injection Augmentation
- •Framework Surgery for Unilateral Vocal Cord Dysfunction
- •Treatment of Bilateral Vocal Paralysis
- •Key Summary Points
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Pathophysiology
- •Classification
- •Symptoms
- •Diagnosis
- •Management of Airway, Hoarseness, and Vocal Cord Dysfunction After Esophagectomy
- •Introduction
- •Vocal Fold Dysfunction
- •Symptoms of Unilateral Vocal Cord Dysfunction
- •Symptoms of Bilateral Vocal Cord Dysfunction
- •Treatment
- •Complications
- •Conclusion
- •Five Key Points on How to Avoid Complications
- •Five Key Points on Diagnosing and/or Managing the Complications Either Intraoperatively or Postoperatively
- •References
- •Intraoperative Solutions for the Gastric Conduit that Will Not Reach
- •Colon as an Alternative Conduit
- •Jejunum as an Alternative Conduit
- •Pedicled Jejunal Interposition
- •Free Jejunal Interposition
- •Summary
- •Key Points
- •References
- •Injury to the Right Gastroepiploic Artery
- •Introduction
- •Anatomy of the RGEA
- •Vascular Considerations in Esophagectomy
- •Preoperative Evaluation of the RGEA
- •Preparation and Mobilization of the Gastric Conduit
- •Techniques for Improving Tissue Oxygenation
- •Tension-Free Anastomosis
- •“Supercharging”
- •Venous Drainage
- •Conclusion
- •Five Key Points: Avoiding Injury to the Right Gastroepiploic Artery
- •References
- •Intra-Operative Solutions for Ischemic Gastric Conduit
- •Gastric Esophageal Replacement Conduit
- •Diagnosis of Gastric Conduit Ischemia
- •Summary
- •Key Points for Avoiding Gastric Conduit Necrosis
- •Key Points for Managing Gastric Conduit Necrosis Postoperatively
- •References
- •Jejunal Feeding Tube Complications
- •Introduction
- •Technique for Placement
- •Open Surgical Jejunostomy Tubes
- •Laparoscopic Jejunostomy Tubes
- •Complications
- •Bowel Necrosis
- •Bowel Obstruction
- •Tube Dysfunction
- •Infectious Complications
- •Aspiration
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points
- •References
- •Part II
- •Gastric Surgery
- •Gastroparesis
- •Etiology
- •Clinical Presentation and Evaluation
- •Management
- •Bile Reflux
- •Etiology
- •Clinical Presentation and Evaluation
- •Management
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points (Prevention)
- •Key Points (Management)
- •References
- •Dealing with Dumping Syndrome
- •Introduction
- •Diagnosis
- •Prevention
- •Management of Dumping Syndrome
- •Diet
- •Pharmacologic Therapy
- •Acarbose
- •Somatostatin Analogs
- •Studies of the Fast-Acting Somatostatin Analog Octreotide
- •Studies of Long-Acting Octreotide LAR
- •Adverse Effects of Somatostatin Analogs
- •Surgical Treatment
- •Conversion of Billroth II to Billroth I Anastomosis
- •Roux-en-Y Conversion
- •Continuous Enteral Feeding
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Epidemiology
- •Etiology
- •Pathophysiology
- •Clinical History
- •Physical Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Diagnosis
- •Noninvasive Imaging Studies
- •Treatment
- •Medical Treatment
- •Endoscopic/Interventional Radiology
- •Surgical Intervention
- •Summary
- •Key Points for Avoiding
- •Key Points for Diagnosing/Managing
- •References
- •Duodenal Stump Blowout
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Presentation of Blowout
- •Mechanisms Contributing to Blowout
- •Staple Line Failure
- •Distal Obstruction
- •Malnutrition
- •The Difficult Duodenum
- •Techniques for Reducing the Risk of Blowout
- •Management of the Difficult Duodenum
- •General Principles of Closure
- •Nissen Technique
- •Bancroft Technique
- •Tube Duodenostomy and Drainage
- •Management of Stump Blowout
- •Medical Management
- •Percutaneous Radiologic Techniques
- •The Decision to Operate and Surgical Approach
- •Summary of Management
- •Ramifications of Blowout
- •Conclusions
- •Key Points: Avoiding Duodenal Stump Blowout
- •Key Points: Diagnosing and Managing Stump Blowout
- •References
- •Postoperative Complications After Surgery for Gastric Cancer: Anastomotic Leakage
- •Introduction
- •Incidence
- •Prospective Factors
- •Detection
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •General Management
- •External Drainage
- •Treatment of the Leakage Site
- •Duodenal Stump Leakage
- •Summary
- •Five Key Points to Avoid Anastomotic Leakage
- •Five Key Points to Diagnose and Manage Leakage
- •References
- •Part III
- •Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery
- •Introduction
- •Definition of PHI
- •Risk Factors for PHI
- •Prevention of PHI
- •Systematic Volumetry of the “Fully Functioning” Part of the Liver
- •Portal Vein Embolization
- •Limiting the Duration of Preoperative Chemotherapy
- •Treatment of PHI
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points
- •References
- •Biliary Leaks and Thoracobiliary Fistula
- •Introduction
- •Definitions
- •Biliary Leak and Grading System
- •Controlled and Uncontrolled Biliary Leaks
- •Source
- •Risk Factors and Prevention
- •Prevention
- •Risk Factors for Bile Leaks After Extrahepatic Bilioenteric Anastomosis
- •Prevention
- •Risk Factors for Bile Leak After Liver Resection
- •Prevention of Biliary Leaks After Hepatectomy
- •Intraoperative Tests for Bile Leaks
- •Postoperative Drains
- •Diagnosis
- •Investigations
- •Ultrasonography or CT Scan
- •Fistulogram
- •MRC, ERC, and PTC
- •HIDA
- •Management
- •Medical Management
- •Endoscopic Management
- •Interventional Radiology
- •Combined Endoscopic and Interventional Radiology Approaches—Rendezvous Procedures
- •Thoracobiliary Fistula
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Five Key Points to Avoid Complications
- •Five Key Points to Diagnosis or Manage Complications
- •References
- •Contralateral Bile Duct Injury During Hepatic Resection
- •Introduction
- •Etiology and Risk Factors
- •Anatomical Variations
- •Difficult Surgical Resection and Reoperation
- •Type of Liver Resection
- •Aggressive Dissection and Devascularization of Bile Ducts
- •Initial Investigations and Management
- •Initial Investigations
- •Stabilization and Operative Planning
- •No Evidence of Distal Obstruction with Fistula
- •Evidence of Distal Obstruction with Fistula
- •Evidence of Distal Obstruction but no Fistula
- •Definitive Management
- •Anatomy Relevant to Operative Repair of Biliary Outflow of Remnant
- •Operative Repair
- •Repair of Injury to Right Liver Outflow
- •Repair of Injury to Left Liver Outflow
- •Prevention of Contralateral Bile Duct Injury
- •Attention to Variation in Biliary
- •Intrahepatic Control of Biliary Radicals
- •Tumor Close to the Hilum
- •Outcomes
- •Five Key Points to Avoid Contralateral Bile Duct Injury
- •Five Key Points to Diagnose and Treat Contralateral Bile Duct Injury
- •References
- •Massive Intraoperative Hemorrhage During Hepato-Biliary and Pancreatic Surgery
- •Introduction
- •Hemorrhage During Liver Surgery
- •Magnitude of Problem
- •Hepatic Vascular Anatomy
- •Prevention of Major Hemorrhage During Hepatic Resection
- •Techniques Aimed at Reducing Blood Loss During Hepatic Surgery
- •Deliberate Dissection and Exposure of Retro-Hepatic Vena Cava and Major Hepatic Veins
- •Hepatic Inflow Control
- •Vascular Isolation
- •Acute Normovolemic Hemodilution (ANH)
- •Management of Intra-Operating Bleeding During Liver Resection
- •Massive Hemorrhage During Pancreatic Surgery
- •Pancreatic Anatomy
- •Bleeding During Pancreaticoduodenectomy
- •Summary
- •5 Key Points to Avoid Complications
- •References
- •Intraoperative Injury to Hepatic Arterial Structures
- •Introduction
- •Normal Anatomy of the Hepatic Arterial Vasculature
- •Variant Anatomy of the Hepatic Arterial Vasculature
- •Replaced and Accessory Right Hepatic Arteries
- •Replaced and Accessory Left Hepatic Arteries
- •Replaced Common Hepatic Artery
- •Celiac Artery Stenosis
- •Preoperative Radiographic Assessment
- •Preoperative Considerations
- •Intraoperative Considerations
- •Specific Intraoperative Considerations
- •Pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD)
- •Replaced/Accessory Right Hepatic Artery
- •Replaced Common Hepatic Artery
- •Celiac Artery Stenosis
- •Hemi-hepatectomy
- •Conclusions
- •Key Points: Preoperative Interventions
- •Key Points: Intraoperative Principles
- •References
- •Hepatic Abscess
- •Etiology
- •Diagnosis
- •Computed Tomography
- •Ultrasound
- •Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- •Treatment
- •Five Key Points on How to Avoid Complications
- •Five Separate Key Points on Diagnosing and/or Managing the Complication
- •References
- •Hepaticojejunostomy Anastomotic Strictures
- •Introduction
- •Diagnosis
- •Clinical and Biological Presentation
- •Morphological Evaluation
- •Incidence and Risk Factors According to the Clinical Context
- •Iatrogenic Bile Duct Injury
- •Liver Transplantation (LT)
- •Pancreatic Head Resection
- •Choledochal Cyst
- •Therapeutic Options
- •Conservative Management
- •Choice of the Approach
- •To Stent or Not to Stent?
- •Periprocedural Management
- •Surgery
- •Revisionary Surgery
- •Liver Resection
- •Liver Transplantation (LT)
- •Key Points: How to Avoid HJ Stricture
- •Key Points: Diagnostic and Management
- •References
- •Defining Pancreatico-Jejunostomy Strictures (PJS) and Pancreatico-Jejunostomy Strictures (PGS) by Symptoms, Morphology and Function
- •Management of Intractable Pain Due to PJA or PGS Stenosis in Surgical Case Series
- •Endoscopic Techniques for Management of PJA Strictures
- •Technical Clinical Results for ERP
- •EUS-Guided Access and Drainage
- •EUS-Guided Rendezvous
- •Pancreatic Antegrade Needle Knife (PANK) Technique
- •EUS-Guided Pancreatogastrostomy
- •Jejunal Stenosis Mimicking PJA Stenosis
- •Conclusions
- •Key Points
- •References
- •Postoperative Portal, Mesenteric, and Splenic Vein Thrombosis
- •Introduction
- •Pathophysiology
- •Diagnosis: Clinical Manifestations and Blood Tests
- •Diagnosis: Imaging Tests
- •Treatment
- •Anticoagulation
- •Interventional Techniques
- •Surgery
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points for Diagnosis
- •Key Points for Treatment
- •References
- •Postpancreatectomy Hemorrhage: Early and Late
- •Introduction
- •Prevention of Late PPH
- •The Falciform Ligament
- •The Portal Dissection
- •GDA Ligation
- •Reinforcing the Pancreatic Transection Site (Distal Pancreatectomy)
- •Diagnosis of Late PPH
- •Symptoms/Signs
- •Imaging for Late PPH
- •Management of PPH
- •Early PPH
- •Late PPH
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points to Avoid Complications
- •Key Points to Diagnose/Manage
- •References
- •Major Disruptions of Pancreaticojejunostomy
- •Introduction
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points: How to Avoid Complications
- •Key Points: Diagnosis/Management
- •References
- •Persistent Pancreatic Fistula
- •Introduction
- •Definition of Pancreatic Fistula
- •Procedure-Specific Incidence and Risk Factors for Pancreatic Fistula
- •Pancreaticoduodenectomy
- •Distal Pancretectomy
- •Duodenum-Preserving Pancreatic Head Resection/Lateral Pancreaticojejunostomy
- •Pancreatic Pseudocyst Drainage/Pancreatic Necrosectomy
- •Other Pancreatic Resections
- •Prevention of Pancreatic Fistula
- •Complications of Pancreatic Fistula
- •Management of Pancreatic Fistula
- •Initial Management
- •Delineation of Pancreatic Duct
- •Definitive Treatment of Pancreatic Fistula
- •Operative Management of Pancreatic Fistula
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points to Avoid Complications
- •Key Points: Diagnosing and/or Managing Complications Either Intra- or Postoperatively
- •References
- •Management of Chyle Leaks Following Pancreatic Resection
- •Introduction
- •Background
- •Anatomy and Physiology of Visceral Lymphatics
- •Diagnosis of a Chyle Leak
- •Management of a Chyle Leak
- •The Contained Chyle Leak
- •Chylous Ascites
- •Management of Refractory Chyle Leaks
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points in Managing a Chyle Leak
- •References
- •Overview
- •Diagnosis
- •Prevention
- •Identifying Risk Factors
- •Role of Octreotide
- •Role of Pancreatic Stenting
- •Dissection and Management of the Pancreatic Stump
- •Minimally Invasive Versus Open Techniques
- •Drain Placement and Management
- •Management of Complications of Pancreatic Leak
- •Goal-Directed Resuscitation and Infection Control
- •Further Definition of Anatomy and Source Control
- •Optimizing Patient Clinical Status for Ongoing Conservative Management
- •Deliberate Reintervention When Clinically Indicated
- •Summary
- •Key Points on Avoiding Complications
- •Key Points on Diagnosis/Management of Complications
- •References
- •Part IV
- •Colorectal Surgery
- •Pearls for the Small Bowel and Colon That Will Not Reach
- •Introduction
- •Anatomic Constraints
- •Diagnosing the Problem
- •Specific Techniques: Making It Reach
- •Colorectal and Coloanal Anastomosis
- •Lateral-to-Medial Approach
- •Medial-to-Lateral Approach
- •Ileal-Pouch Anal Anastomosis (IPAA)
- •Stomas that Do Not Reach
- •Bailout Maneuvers—It Just Does Not Reach
- •Conclusions
- •Key Points on How to Avoid the Complication
- •Key Points on Diagnosing/Managing the Complication
- •References
- •Anastomotic Leak/Pelvic Abscess
- •Introduction
- •Prevention
- •Diagnosis and Management
- •Diagnosis
- •Management
- •Type I: Generalized Peritonitis
- •Type II: Localized Pelvic Abscess
- •Type III: Fistula
- •Long-Term Outcome
- •Need for a Permanent Stoma
- •Stenosis or Stricture
- •Local Recurrence
- •References
- •Management of Anastomotic Stricture
- •Introduction
- •Etiology of Anastomotic Stricture
- •Presentation and Diagnosis
- •Nonoperative Treatment
- •Balloon Dilation and Endoscopic Options
- •Stents
- •Operative Treatment
- •Reoperative Surgery
- •Anastomotic Revision and Diverting Stomas
- •New Technology
- •Conclusion
- •To Avoid Anastomotic Strictures in Colorectal Resections
- •Five Points on Diagnosing and Managing Anastomotic Strictures
- •References
- •Intraoperative Ureteral Injury
- •Introduction
- •Role of Preoperative Stenting
- •Incidence of Ureteric Injury and Early Identification of Injury
- •Placement of Ureteral Stents
- •Detection of Ureter Injury
- •Management of Ureter Injury
- •Proximal Third Injuries
- •Middle Third Ureteral Injuries
- •Lower Third Ureteral Injuries
- •Delayed Ureteral Transection or Ligation
- •Management Post Repair
- •Outcomes
- •Key Points to Avoiding Injury
- •Key Points to Diagnosis and Manage the Complication
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Anatomy
- •Incidence
- •Types of Prostatic Urethral Injury
- •Prevention
- •Detection
- •Management
- •Delayed Rectourethral Fistula
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points on Avoiding Complications
- •Key Points on Diagnosing/Managing Prostatic Urethral Injuries
- •References
- •Vaginal Injury During Stapled Anastomosis
- •Introduction
- •How to Avoid Vaginal Injury
- •How to Fix Vaginal Injury
- •Key Points on How to Avoid Vaginal Injury
- •Management of Rectovaginal Fistula
- •Introduction
- •General Principles
- •Local Repair
- •Mucosal Advancement Flap Repair
- •Endorectal Advancement Flap with Muscular Plication (Anterior Levatorplasty)
- •Transanal Sleeve Advancement Flap
- •Transvaginal Repair
- •Fistulotomy
- •Ligation of Intersphincteric FistulaTract
- •Biological Agents: Fibrin Glue and Fistula Plug
- •Miscellaneous
- •Tissue Transfer Procedures
- •Gracilis Muscle Interposition Flap
- •Martius Flap
- •Abdominal Procedure
- •Transperineal Omental Flap
- •Perioperative Management
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points to Avoid Complications
- •Key Points on Diagnosis and/or Managing Complications
- •References
- •Management of Presacral/Pelvic Bleeding
- •Introduction
- •Anatomy
- •Patterns of Injury
- •Management
- •Role of the Anaesthesiologist
- •Role of the Surgeon
- •Minimal-Access Surgery
- •The Postoperative Period
- •Summary
- •Key Points
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Preoperative Evaluation
- •Medical Comorbidities
- •Radiation Therapy
- •Chemotherapy
- •Imaging
- •Timing of Reconstruction
- •Classification of Defect
- •Reconstructive Surgical Tenants
- •Adjuncts to Flap Surgery
- •Negative Pressure Wound Therapy
- •Tissue Expansion
- •Biologic Tissue Matrices
- •Rectus Abdominis Muscle
- •Gracilis Muscle Flap
- •Gluteus Maximus Muscle
- •Pudendal Flap
- •Anteriolateral Thigh Flap
- •Postoperative Care
- •Ambulation
- •Drain Management
- •Complications
- •Summary
- •Key Points: Preventing Complications
- •Key Points: Managing Complications
- •References
- •Complications After TEM (Transanal Endoscopic Microsurgery) and TAMIS (Transanal Minimally Invasive Surgery)
- •Background
- •Complications of TEM and TAMIS
- •Postoperative Fever
- •Wound Dehiscence
- •Rectal Pain
- •Peritoneal Perforation
- •Pelvic Phlegmon and Abscess
- •Fistula
- •Bleeding
- •Incontinence
- •Conclusion
- •Key Points: Avoiding a Complication
- •Key Points: Managing/Diagnosing Septic Complications
- •References
- •Parastomal Hernia
- •Overview
- •Definition and Classification
- •Incidence
- •Pathophysiology
- •Risk Factors
- •Complications
- •Prevention
- •Preoperative Considerations
- •Operative Considerations
- •Diagnosis
- •History and Physical Exam
- •Imaging
- •Management
- •Nonoperative Management
- •Operative Management
- •Open Approach
- •Laparoscopic Approach
- •Postoperative Complications
- •Management of Recurrent Parastomal Hernias
- •Key Points: Diagnosing/Managing Parastomal Hernia
- •Key Points: Avoiding Parastomal Hernia Complications
- •References
- •Stoma Retraction/Ischemia/Stenosis
- •Introduction
- •Etiology/Incidence/Risk Factors
- •Prevention
- •Recognition/Assessment/Severity/Therapy
- •Conclusions
- •Five Keys Points in Diagnosing and Managing Stenosis, Retraction, and Ischemia in an Ostomy
- •Five Key Points on How to Avoid Tension and Ischemia in an Ostomy
- •References
- •Incontinence After Lateral Internal Sphincterotomy/Fistulotomy
- •Introduction
- •Lateral Internal Sphincterotomy
- •Fistulotomy
- •Management
- •Evaluation
- •Treatment
- •Injectables
- •Magnetic Bowel Sphincter
- •Sacral Nerve Stimulator
- •Artificial Bowel Sphincter
- •Diversion
- •Key Points: Strategies to Avoid the Complication of Incontinence
- •Key Points: Diagnosing and/or Managing the Complication of Incontinence Either Intraoperatively or Postoperatively
- •References
- •Anal Stenosis After Hemorrhoidectomy: Avoidance and Management
- •Introduction
- •Diagnosis
- •Classification of Stenosis
- •Treatment
- •Prevention
- •Nonoperative Intervention
- •Operative Intervention
- •Anatomic Versus Functional Stenoses
- •Preoperative Planning
- •Postoperative Care
- •Summary
- •Key Points: Managing Complications
- •References
- •Part V
- •Other Considerations
- •Delivering Bad News: Conversations with My Surgeon
- •Introduction
- •Informed Consent
- •The Family Does Not Want the Patient to be Fully Informed
- •Perioperative Death
- •When an Intraoperative Death Does Occur
- •Discussion of Unresectability or Metastatic Disease that Precludes Resection
- •Discussion of a Postoperative Complication
- •Discussion of the Unanticipated Major Postoperative Complication
- •Discussion of Operative Findings
- •The Need for Reoperation
- •Complications that Occur in your Absence from the Hospital
- •Withdrawal of Life-Sustaining Measures
- •Discussing the Pathology Report
- •Discussion of Long-term Survival Prospect
- •Management of the Difficult Family
- •References
- •Index

108 S. P. Gangadharan
Technique for Placement
Open Surgical Jejunostomy Tubes
The history of the development of jejunal access
spans over 150 years with Bush in 1858 who created a jejunostomy for feeding in a patient with
unresectable gastric cancer [10]. The use of a
tube placed directly into the jejunum for feeding dates back to 1878 and Surmay de Havre.
Further surgical technical modification is most
notable for Witzel’s description in 1891 of the
imbrication of bowel longitudinally over the tube
[11]. In 1973, Delany described the technique of
needle catheter jejunostomy, utilizing a thinner
catheter and a subserosal tunnel [12]. With the
advent of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy,
technical modifications were soon made to allow
both transgastric jejunal tube placement and direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tube
placement [13–15]. As laparoscopy became established in the early 1990s, this technique was
adopted for jejunostomy tube placement [16–19].
Radiologists have since developed a technique
for direct percutaneous access of the jejunum
without endoscopic guidance [20].
A standard surgical jejunostomy tube may
be accomplished via three different techniques:
Stamm jejunostomy, Witzel jejunostomy, or
needle catheter jejunostomy [11]. The location
for placement is similar in all cases, usually between 20 and 30 cm from the ligament of Treitz.
Orientation of the jejunum is assured so that the
tube will eventually pass in an antegrade direction so as to avoid the reflux of tube feeds into
the stomach or esophagus. Latex or silicone rubber catheters have been used for these feeding
tubes, with sizes ranging from 8 to 18 Fr, generally. A Witzel jejunostomy is created by placing
a purse-string suture in partial-thickness fashion
on the antimesenteric aspect of the jejunum. An
enterotomy is created in the middle of the purse
string, and the tube is directed into the lumen,
and the suture is tied without occluding the tube
lumen, but snugly enough to avoid leakage. A
“Witzel tunnel” is then created by imbricating
the seromuscular jejunal wall over the tube with
interrupted sutures. This is done retrograde from
the initial enterotomy over a distance of 3–4 cm.
The tube is externalized through the abdominal
wall and the jejunum is tacked to the peritoneum
broadly to avoid volvulus. The jejunostomy tube
is also secured to the skin with an additional suture or commercially available wafer-style tube
holder. Additional modifications of the technique
include the use of Foley catheters with the balloon inflated or T-tubes, both of which allow the
bowel to be pulled flush against the peritoneum
by slight traction on the tube, similar to the technique utilized for percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tubes.
The needle catheter jejunostomy is classically
performed by passing a 14G needle in an subserosal fashion for ~ 5 cm before entering the jejunal lumen [21]. A 16G catheter is then threaded
through the needle and passed distally within the
lumen of the bowel for 25 cm. Similarly to the
Witzel jejunostomy, the external site of tube entry
into the antimesenteric jejunum is then tacked to
the peritoneum, and the tube is then externalized
through the abdominal wall and secured.
The Stamm jejunostomy utilizes two concentric purse-string sutures to seal the jejunal antimesenteric entry site around the tube. No tunnel
is created.
Laparoscopic Jejunostomy Tubes
Laparoscopic jejunostomy tube placement may
be accomplished via similar technique to open
surgery [16–19]. Commercially available kits
may be utilized to assist in the passing of the
catheter through the abdominal wall (peel-away
sheaths) or to facilitate tacking of the jejunum to
the peritoneum (T-shape fasteners), though standard suturing and instrumentation allow the same
solutions to be achieved [22]. The laparoscopic
working ports are in the right mid- and upper abdomen, with an umbilical port being used for the
camera.

10911 Jejunal Feeding Tube Complications
Complications
Overall, the complication rates for feeding jejunostomy placed at the time of elective surgery
have been reported to be as high as 45 % [9, 23–
27]. However, significant complications appear
to be a much more event. In a large series of over
1100 patients undergoing needle catheter jejunostomy at the completion of esophagectomy, the
rate of complication leading to repeat laparotomy
was only 1.1 % [25].
Bowel Necrosis
Diarrhea, nausea, crampy abdominal pain, and
distention, accompanied by high nasogastric
tube outputs, may occur in about 40 % of patients fed by jejunostomy[28]. However, despite
these common potentially alarming signs and
symptoms, small bowel necrosis is thought only
to occur in between 0.14 and 3.5 % of patients
[29]. The diagnosis does carry a very high rate of
mortality [30]. The true etiology of small bowel
necrosis in the setting of jejunal tube feeding is
not entirely clear, but it does occur in a patchy
distribution similar to necrotizing enterocolitis
found in neonates, and segments of bowel which
are not exposed to the flow of tube feeds appear
to be spared [31].
If suspicion for this complication exists, computed tomography may suggest bowel ischemia
or perforation, but a surgical re-exploration is
often the incisive and timely way to diagnose and
then remediate the problem. Bowel resection,
bowel rest, and resiting or removal of the tube all
may be necessary.
Pneumatosis intestinalis also, has been reported in patients with jejunostomy tubes [32, 33].
(Fig. 11.1) However, not all pneumatosis intestinalis is necessarily a sign of necrosis or other
significant morbidity, especially when incidentally detected radiographically. In the absence
of bloody diarrhea, acute abdomen, obstruction,
portal venous gas, or other signs and symptoms
of bowel ischemia, it may be possible to simply observe patients with pneumatosis closely
[34–37]. Data regarding the mechanism of formation of benign pneumatosis in patients with
jejunostomy tubes are scant. It is theorized that
Fig. 11.1 Benign pneumatosis intestinalis around a jeju-
nostomy tube. a and b Abdominal CT scan (soft tissue
and lung windows); arrow points to loop of jejunum with
pneumatosis (jejunostomy tube in that bowel loop is not
visualized on these images). c and d Five days later the
degree of pneumatosis has decreased considerably

110 S. P. Gangadharan
a mechanical breach in the mucosa from the tube
coupled with increased intraluminal gas/pressure
from fermentation, ileus, or hypoosmolar feeds is
responsible for the air [38, 39].
Bowel Obstruction
While ileus may result from any intraabdominal operation, bowel obstruction is a complication that may require more aggressive intervention or reoperation. The entry site of the feeding
tube into the bowel lumen is a potential site of
obstruction. A Witzel jejunostomy that gathers
up too much seromuscular tunnel will result in
decreased cross-sectional area at that site. Tube
feeding may be tolerated, as the tip of the tube
is distal to the site of bowel narrowing, but the
patient may have vomiting, conduit distention,
or increased nasogastric tube output as the bowel
transit upstream of the Witzel tunnel is impeded.
A recent report on 153 patients who underwent a
Witzel jejunostomy tube noted a 7 % incidence
of bowel obstruction [40]. However, this publication suffers from a lack of definition of obstruction, and no mention was made of whether these
patients necessitated intervention beyond bowel
rest for this condition. In addition, it is unclear
what the duration of follow-up is. Far more prevalent in the literature are reports that detail minimal or no episodes of bowel obstruction in the
short-term, which reflects avoidance of technical
error during the placement of the feeding tube [9,
41, 42].
Volvulus around the jejunostomy tube or
through an internal hernia has been described
as etiologies of bowel obstruction [43, 44]
(Fig. 11.2). Despite the single-tacking site of percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy or direct percutaneous jejunostomy tubes placed with fluoroscopic or ultrasound guidance, the reporting of
volvulus with those techniques is still quite rare
[45–47]. Other obstructive events include obstruction from the catheter balloon, which may
be obviated by choice of tube or avoidance of
balloon over-inflation [48]. Intussusception at
the site of direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tubes has been described by multiple
groups [49–51]. Despite the usual technique of
multiple tacking sites with a Witzel jejunostomy
tube, it has been described with that technique as
well [52].
In cases of obstruction, an exploratory laparotomy or laparoscopy may be employed. A partial obstruction may be observed at times. Edema
at the Witzel tunnel may reduce in time with
conservative measures and allow free passage
of enteric contents. If there is a balloon catheter
responsible for the obstruction, this may be diagnosed with contrast studies or simple examination of the tube and balloon apparatus and remediated by balloon deflation.
Fig. 11.2 Small bowel obstruction secondary to internal
herniation and volvulus around jejunostomy tube site. a
Abdominal CT depicting dilated loops of small bowel
( white arrow) as well as a decompressed loop of small
bowel tacking along the previous jejunostomy tube site
( black arrow). b Decompressed small bowel in the right
lower quadrant; dilated loop of small bowel in the left
lower quadrant

11111 Jejunal Feeding Tube Complications
Tube Dysfunction
Overall rates of tube dysfunction have been reported as high as 45 % in a mixed series of gastrostomy and jejunostomy tubes. These complications—clogging, knotting of the tube [53], dislodgement, or breakage of the connectors—may
be considered minor; however, they may lead
to the interruption of nutrition delivery or additional invasive procedures. Clogging of the tube
is a very common problem, reported in 0.5–6 %
of prospectively collected series of patients undergoing a Witzel jejunostomy tube at the time
of esophagectomy or gastric surgery [41, 54].
Needle catheter jejunostomy has been reported
to have similar propensity for clogging as Witzel
jejunostomy [55]. Best practices for feeding tube
maintenance include adherence to a flushing regimen and avoidance of introducing any solid material into the tube (e.g., crushed pills). In addition, checking of residuals via a jejunostomy tube
is not recommended, both due to technical limitations and inaccuracy of the measurement and due
to concerns that this might hasten clogging. Meat
tenderizer, pancreatic enzymes, and soda have all
been utilized to help dissolve the inspissated tube
feed substance from clogged jejunostomy tubes
[56]. Of these agents, pancreatic enzyme appears
to have the greatest efficacy in resolving the obstruction, with 96
one series [57]. Some researchers have suggested
that a pancreatic enzyme “lock” similar to a heparin lock for vascular catheters may be utilized
as prophylaxis against inspissated tube feeds obstructing the feeding tube [58]. The mechanical
remedy for a clogged tube is steady or oscillating
pressure via a syringe filled with saline or water.
Reconstitution of patency has also been achieved
with a vascular embolectomy catheter [59]. Of
note, in the series quoted above with a 6
dence of tube obstruction, all feeding tubes were
able to be
out need for replacement of the tube [41].
Similar to any externalized tube or drain, jejunostomy tubes are subject to dislodgement.
While this data point may be under-reported in
% restoration of tube patency
% inci-
recanalized with local measures, with-
in
the largely retrospective reviews of jejunostomy
tube complication (as simple replacement of the
tube may occur without any documentation), a
prospective trial of nasoduodenal tubes versus jejunostomy tubes reported a 6 % incidence of tube
dislodgement [7]. Dislodgement of jejunostomy
tubes that required a reoperation to address the
problem occurred in 1.2 % of patients in another
series [54]. In one particularly notable case report, a patient with a jejunostomy tube that had
been placed for enteral access in the setting of
unresectable gastric cancer presented with “disappearance of the tube and abdominal pain” and
was found to have the entirety of the tube within
the bowel [60]. Peristalsis eventually allowed the
tube to pass per rectum without any surgical intervention.
For chronically indwelling surgically placed
tubes, the tract may not close completely for
days, though the
2–3
optimal timing for direct
replacement of a jejunostomy tube is as soon as
possible after it falls out. If there is an undue resistance in passing a lubricated tube of the same
size as that which was dislodged, the procedure
should be aborted. A contrast study via the tube
should confirm a correct placement prior to use.
If a surgical tract is no longer directly accessible, ultrasound or fluoroscopy may facilitate tube
replacement at the site of the previously tacked
jejunum. In one series, successful jejunostomy
tube replacement at the site of a previous surgical
jejunostomy was achieved in 26 of 28 attempts
%) [
(92
61]. While the mean time from surgical
jejunostomy tube removal to direct percutaneous
placement averaged 278
days, the range included
sites as early as 3 days from removal. Some surgeons will mark the tube entry site into the bowel
with
metallic clips to facilitate direct fluoroscopic-assisted percutaneous access if necessary [62].
However, as a caveat, metal clips may not always
correspond to the exact site of accessible bowel
over time [63].
To help mitigate accidental tube dislodgement, the device or sutures used to secure the
tube to the abdominal skin should be inspected
routinely and replaced as necessary.

112 S. P. Gangadharan
Infectious Complications
In a prospective trial, leakage around a feeding
tube was detected in 4 %, though only one patient
of 79 ended up needing a re-laparotomy for complication [7]. (Fig. 11.3) Often, a small amount of
succus entericus may stain the dressing around
the jejunostomy tube. When this occurs in notable amounts, local measures may be employed
to keep the skin from becoming excoriated. Vigilance for signs of superficial or deeper infection
must be maintained.
Infection at the tube entry site occurred in
0.5 % of patients in a series of over 400 patients
undergoing a Witzel jejunostomy tube [54]. In
Han-Geurts’s report of a randomized trial of needle catheter jejunostomy versus nasoduodenal
tubes, the rate of site infection was 16 % [7]. With
direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy
tubes, a 6 % site infection rate has been reported,
with all of these being treated successfully with
antibiotics alone [45]. In this same series, a single
patient (0.6 % incidence) did suffer an abdominal
wall abscess in the setting of peri-tube leakage;
this required operative debridement. Occasionally, with minor cellulitis and no significant abscess collection, opening the tract more widely
around the tube and passing a wick into the space
may help. Occasionally, the leakage associated
with the infection is too persistent and re-siting or
upsizing of the tube may be necessary. Necrotizing fasciitis is a rare sequela of a tube infection,
but has been described in percutaneous and surgical jejunostomy tubes alike [64, 65].
Aspiration
The rate of aspiration events with jejunostomy
tube feeding is a controversial subject. Many
groups believe that there is a decreased rate of
aspiration with jejunostomy tubes as compared
with gastrostomy tube feeding [66, 67]. In the
early experience with percutaneous endoscopic
jejunostomy tubes, a very high aspiration rate
(67 %) was reported [68]. However, more mature
results from the same group were more promising, with the mean number of aspiration pneumonia events per month decreasing from 3.39
to 0.42 after the placement of the percutaneous
jejunostomy tube [69].
In a counter-argument, one group reported no
difference in the rate of aspiration pneumonia
with surgically placed gastrostomy and jejunostomy tubes [70]. Moreover, a prospective randomized trial of nasally placed gastric or jejunal
tubes demonstrated no difference in the aspiration rate [71]. Jejunal tube feed infusion itself
was detected to induce gastroesophageal reflux,
even in the absence of gastric distention [72].
The key point around the issues of aspiration
is to individualize the treatment to the patient. For
example, some patient populations (e.g., elderly
stroke patients) laparoscopic enteral access may
not obliterate the risks of aspiration and pneumonia, and their overall mortality rate may be quite
high [73]. The same might be taken into account
in the elderly aspirating population, where jejunostomy feeding in and of itself does not protect
against aspiration pneumonia in patients known
to aspirate [74].
Fig. 11.3 Abdominal wall abscess secondary to leaking
of succus entericus and tube feeds around jejunostomy
tube. Arrow points to jejunostomy tube
Conclusion
Jejunostomy tube feeding remains an important
adjunct to major esophageal surgery. While it
may not be necessary to perform a jejunostomy
tube in every case as nutritional support may
be able to proceed uneventfully by mouth, the

11311 Jejunal Feeding Tube Complications
reasonably low rate of complication and the ease
of discontinuation of the tube argue that prophylactic placement is a valid strategy. Complications of jejunostomy tubes may be reduced with
careful attention to the technical details of surgical placement. In addition, early signs of complication must be followed closely so that salvage
might occur should a highly morbid process
begin to unfold.
Key Points
1. Jejunostomy tubes are often placed at the
time of esophagectomy and/or gastrectomy in
order to optimize nutritional status. Their utility is debated.
2. Jejunostomy tubes can be placed surgically
with three different techniques: Stamm, Witzel, or needle-catheter. Endoscopic and percutaneous techniques can be utilized on a selective basis as well.
3. Complications after jejunostomy tube placement include bowel necrosis and perforation,
obstruction, volvulus, tube-feeding intolerance, infection, aspiration, and tube dysfunction. Careful attention to the technical details
of tube placement and tube choice are needed
to minimize these complications.
4. Technical pearls include avoiding obstruction
of the bowel lumen with either too large of a
tube size or over-zealous imbrication while
performing a Witzel technique. Broad-based
fixation of the bowel to the abdominal wall
should be employed to avoid obstruction and
volvulus.
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-

Part II
Gastric Surgery

Bile Reux and Gastroparesis
Robert E. Roses and Douglas L. Fraker
12
Gastroparesis
Etiology
Postoperative gastroparesis is most often associated with upper abdominal surgery but may
develop after lower abdominal surgery as well.
In the early postoperative period following pancreaticoduodenectomy, gastroparesis has been
reported in up to 50 % of patients [1, 2]. In this
context, the syndrome of upper gastrointestinal
tract dysfunction (i.e., nausea and vomiting) has
been termed delayed gastric emptying (DGE). In
many cases, this heralds the evolution of a pancreatic fistula or other infectious complication.
There is also some suggestion that operative factors contribute to this problem. Some but not all
series have suggested a higher incidence of DGE
after a pylorus-preserving operation (PPPD)
compared to pancreaticoduodenectomy with antrectomy [3]. Likewise, retrocolic compared to
antecolic duodenojejunostomy following PPPD
has been associated with an increased incidence
of DGE [1].
More persistent gastroparesis following pancreaticoduodenectomy occurs in upwards of 5 %
of patients. A similar rate of gastroparesis has
been reported after gastric resection. Patients
with risk factors for underlying gastric dysmotility (e.g., diabetes mellitus) are at increased risk
[2]. Although the era of frequent surgery for
peptic ulcer disease has passed, that experience
provided substantial insight into the etiology of
gastroparesis after gastric resection. Not surprisingly, antrectomy with truncal vagotomy was associated with an increased incidence of postoperative gastroparesis, compared to highly selective vagotomy, implicating gastric denervation
as an important contributing factor [4, 5]. Rouxen-y reconstruction was also variably linked to
a greater incidence of gastroparesis than either
Billroth I or Bilroth II reconstruction pointing to
an additional contribution of disruption of intestinal innervation.
R. E. Roses ()
Division of Endocrine and Oncologic Surgery,
Department of Surgery, Perelman Center for Advanced
Medicine, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania,
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 3400
Civic Center Blvd., Philadelphia, PA, USA
e-mail: robert.roses@uphs.upenn.edu
D. L. Fraker
Department of Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, 400
Spruce Street, 4 Silverstein, Philadelphia, PA, USA
e-mail: frakerd@uphs.upenn.edu
T. M. Pawlik et al. (eds.), Gastrointestinal Surgery, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2223-9_12,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Clinical Presentation and Evaluation
Postoperative nausea and vomiting in the presence of lower gastrointestinal tract function often
herald gastric dysmotility. The aforementioned
concept of DGE has been variably defined in the
literature and this inconsistency has complicated
the interpretation of studies on the subject [6]. In
an often referenced 1993 trial of erythromycin
119
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