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- •Contents
- •List of Contributors
- •Hospitalists as Leaders
- •Key Pearls
- •Challenges
- •The Future
- •References
- •Key Clinical Pearls
- •Introduction
- •The Path to Leadership
- •Leading in Care Delivery
- •Leading in Hospital Quality and Patient Safety
- •Leading in Education
- •Introduction
- •Diagnosis
- •Clinical Scenario
- •Diagnosis Study
- •Discussion
- •Prognosis
- •Clinical Scenario
- •Prognosis Study
- •Discussion
- •Therapy
- •Clinical Scenario
- •Therapy Trial
- •Discussion
- •Economics
- •Clinical Scenario
- •Economics Study
- •Economics Criteria
- •Discussion
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •A New Paradigm: The Evidence Hierarchy
- •Becoming an Evidence-based Practitioner
- •Answering Questions
- •Resources to Answer Background Questions
- •Resources to Answer Foreground Questions
- •Summary
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •The Clinical Exam as Diagnostic Test
- •Assessing Volume Status
- •Acute Blood Loss
- •Non-Blood Loss Causes of Hypovolemia
- •How to Perform Postural Vital Signs
- •Cardiac Murmurs
- •Systolic Murmurs
- •Aortic Stenosis
- •How to Perform the Useful Physical Exam for Aortic Stenosis
- •Mitral Regurgitation
- •How to Examine the Useful Physical Exam for Mitral Regurgitation
- •Diastolic Murmurs
- •Aortic Insufficiency
- •How to Perform the Useful Physical Exam for Aortic Insufficiency
- •Hepatomegaly
- •How to Perform the Useful Physical Exam to Assess Hepatomegaly
- •Ascites
- •How to Perform the Useful Physical Exam to Assess for Ascites
- •Central Venous Pressure
- •Evaluation of JVP
- •Abdominojugular Reflux Test
- •Kussmaul Sign
- •Pleural Effusion
- •How to Perform the Useful Physical Exam
- •Conventional Percussion
- •Chest Expansion
- •Tactile Fremitus
- •References
- •Patient Safety and Hospital Quality
- •Key Pearls
- •Background
- •Communication Standards
- •Systematic Approaches
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Accountability
- •Causal Factors of Error (Swiss cheese model)
- •Reporting
- •Root Cause Analysis
- •Disclosure
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Key Pearls
- •Background and Essential Elements of Teamwork
- •Quality
- •Choosing Performance Improvement Targets
- •Do Your Homework — Gather Baseline Data
- •Form the Right Team
- •Define Goals
- •Break Down the Problem — Process Maps
- •Collect Data
- •Analyze the Findings
- •Implement Change
- •Measure, Track and Repeat
- •Summary
- •References
- •Challenges to Improving Teamwork
- •Assessment of Teamwork
- •Examples of Successful Interventions
- •Team Training
- •Daily Goals of Care
- •Interdisciplinary Rounds
- •Nurse-Physician Unit Co-Leadership
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Background
- •Barriers
- •Successful Strategies
- •Remaining Challenges
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Required Components of the Discharge Process
- •Optional Components of the Discharge Process
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Drivers for Health Information Technology
- •The Electronic Health Record
- •Clinical Decision Support (CDS)
- •The Risks and Benefits of HIT
- •Roles for Hospitalists in Health Informatics
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Business of Hospital Medicine
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Hospitalist Movement a Way Out to Provide Cost Effective Treatment
- •Business Plan for a Hospitalist Program
- •Staffing Structure of the Program
- •Cost Projection
- •Revenue Generation
- •Business Plan Outline and Factors
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Metrics
- •Volume
- •Length of Stay
- •Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA)
- •Avoidable re-admissions
- •Hospital-acquired conditions
- •Clinical Documentation
- •MS-DRG
- •APR-DRG
- •Satisfaction Surveys
- •Medical Necessity
- •Recovery Audit Contractor (RAC)
- •Concurrent Review
- •Retrospective Denial
- •Dashboards
- •Aligning Interests
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Hospitalist Coding
- •Documenting E&M Codes for Initial and Subsequent Visits
- •Chief Complaint
- •History
- •Physical Exam
- •Medical Decision Making
- •Determining Which Code to Use
- •Documenting E&M Codes for Discharge Day Visits
- •Documenting E&M Codes for Consultation Visits
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Definition of Non-Physician Practitioners (NPPs)
- •Quality and Cost-Effectiveness of NPs and PAs Care
- •NPPs Roles and Responsibilities
- •Autonomy and Scope of Practice
- •NPPs in Academic Centers
- •NPPs in Small Community Hospital
- •NPPs in Private Physician Hospitalist Service
- •Potential Pitfalls of Collaboration
- •Reimbursement and Billing
- •References
- •Hospitalist as Educator
- •Key Pearls
- •Tips for Teaching that Won’t Slow you Down (Too Much)
- •Teaching Different Levels of Learners
- •The Microskills of Clinical Teaching
- •Example of the Microskills in Action
- •Pearls for Giving Meaningful Feedback with Less Stress
- •Making Time for Teaching
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Framework
- •Set the Stage with Learners — What to Do Before Entering the Room
- •1. Establish your goals ahead of time
- •2. State your established goals clearly to the group
- •3. Define roles and responsibilities
- •4. Establish that there will be debriefing and feedback after the encounter
- •Orient the Patient — What to Do When you Enter the Room
- •1. Introductions
- •2. Explain the goals and structure of the encounter to the patient
- •3. Elicit any additional goals from the patient
- •Key Principles to Follow at the Bedside
- •1. Follow your pre-arranged structure
- •2. Maintain patient respect
- •3. Maintain learner respect
- •Debrief — Outside the Room
- •1. Provide learner-specific feedback
- •2. Elicit feedback about the session
- •Summary
- •References
- •Cardiology
- •Key Pearls
- •Key History Elements and Physical Exam Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Cardiac Testing
- •Chest Pain Units
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Definitition and Pathophysiology
- •Diagnosis
- •ECG Evaluation
- •History
- •Physical Exam
- •Cardiac Biomarkers
- •Initial Treatment and Stabilization
- •UA/NSTEMI
- •STEMI
- •Transition to Maintenance Therapy
- •Quality Measures in Acute Coronary Syndromes
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Profiles
- •Diagnostic Strategies
- •Outcomes of Acute Heart Failure
- •Management of Acute Heart Failure
- •Diuretics
- •Vasodilators
- •Inotropes
- •Transition Home
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Aortic Stenosis (AS)
- •Etiology
- •History and Physical
- •Diagnosis and Testing
- •Treatment
- •Mitral Stenosis (MS)
- •Etiology
- •History and Physical
- •Diagnosis and Testing
- •Treatment
- •Aortic Regurgitation (AR)
- •Etiology
- •History and Physical
- •Diagnosis and Testing
- •Treatment
- •Mitral Regurgitation (MR)
- •Etiology
- •History and Physical
- •Diagnosis and Testing
- •Treatment
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Epidemiology
- •Etiologies and Associated Conditions
- •Clinical Findings
- •History and Physical Examination
- •Electrocardiogram
- •Echocardiography
- •Additional Laboratory Evaluation
- •Management
- •Rate Control
- •Stroke Risk Assessment
- •Antithrombotic Therapy
- •Rhythm Control
- •Cardioversion
- •Maintenance of sinus rhythm
- •Future Trends
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Role of the Electrophysiology Study
- •Bradyarrhythmias
- •Tachyarrhythmias
- •Supraventricular Arrhythmias
- •Regular Narrow Complex Tachycardia with a Short RP Interval
- •AV-nodal re-entrant tachycardia
- •AV re-entrant tachycardia
- •Atrial tachycardia
- •Ventricular Arrhythmias
- •Ventricular Tachycardia in the Absence of Structural Heart Disease (Idiopathic VT)
- •Left bundle branch block VT
- •Right bundle branch block VT
- •Ventricular Tachycardia in the Presence of Structural Heart Disease
- •Ischemic cardiomyopathy
- •Nonischemic cardiomyopathy
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Incidence and Etiology
- •Pathophysiology
- •Clinical Presentation
- •Ophthalmic Manifestations
- •Neurological Changes (Hypertensive Encephalopathy)
- •Cardiovascular Complications
- •The Kidney
- •Hematological Changes
- •Clinical Evaluation (Table 2)
- •Treatment
- •Hypertensive Urgency (Table 3)
- •Hypertensive Emergency (Table 4)
- •Specific Situations (Table 5)
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Patient History
- •Physical Examination
- •Cardiac Syncope: Arrhythmia and Structural Heart Disease
- •Select Options for Monitoring and Diagnostic Evaluation
- •References
- •Pulmonary
- •Key Pearls
- •Pathophysiology
- •Diagnosis
- •Clinical History
- •Physical Examination
- •General Appearance
- •Vital Signs
- •Chest
- •Cardiac Exam
- •Extremities
- •Neurologic
- •Basic Diagnostic Testing
- •Advanced Diagnostic Testing
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Early Management of the Acutely Dyspneic Patient
- •Key Management Strategies
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Definition, Precipitating Factors and Mortality Risk
- •Evaluation of Patients Hospitalized with an Asthma Exacerbation
- •History
- •Physical Examination
- •Objective Testing
- •Management of Patients Hospitalized with an Asthma Exacerbation
- •Medications
- •Adjunct Therapy
- •Monitoring Parameters
- •Treatment of Comorbid Conditions
- •When to Consult a Specialist
- •Goals for Discharge
- •Summary
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Acute Exacerbations
- •Treatment of Acute Exacerbations
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Evaluation
- •History
- •Clinical Exam
- •Radiologic Evaluation
- •Pulmonary Function Testing, Echocardiography, Laboratory Data and Ancillary Testing
- •Surgical Lung Biopsy
- •Management of DPLD
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Definition
- •Classification
- •Clinical Presentation
- •Evaluation (see Fig. 1)
- •Medical Treatment
- •Surgical Treatment
- •Prognosis
- •References
- •Critical Care
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Definitions, Pathophysiology, and Epidemiology
- •What Is SIRS/Sepsis/Severe Sepsis/ Sepsis with Shock
- •What Causes Sepsis
- •What Causes Shock in Sepsis
- •What Is the Cause of Microcirculatory Disturbance in Sepsis
- •Sepsis Recognition and Intervention: Principles and Action Plan
- •Key Recognition Principles and Guidelines
- •Key Intervention Principles
- •Role of Monitoring: What to Measure — When and How Reliable
- •Other Therapeutic Considerations/Controversies
- •Outcome Analysis and Prognosis
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Initiation of Mechanical Ventilation
- •Modes and Settings
- •Monitoring and Supportive Care
- •Monitoring
- •Supportive Care
- •Disease-Specific Conditions and Ventilator Management
- •Obstructive Lung Disease
- •Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome/ Acute Lung Injury
- •Evaluation of Respiratory Distress in the Mechanically Ventilated Patient
- •Liberation from the Mechanical Ventilator
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Glucose Goals
- •Insulin IV Infusion
- •Glucose Monitoring
- •Calculation of SC Insulin Doses
- •References
- •Renal
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Common Reasons for ESRD-related Hospitalization
- •Infections
- •Catheter-related Bacteremia
- •Catheter-associated Peritonitis
- •Volume Overload
- •Vascular Access Issues
- •Steal Syndrome
- •Aneurysms
- •Hyperkalemia
- •Tips for Managing Hospitalized ESRD Patients
- •Orders
- •Daily Weights
- •Renal Diet
- •Labs
- •Medications
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Opportunity for Renal Replacement Therapy Preparation and Re-Evaluation During Inpatient Hospitalization
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Initial Workup of AKI
- •Categories of AKI
- •Prerenal AKI
- •Definition
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Intrarenal (Intrinsic) AKI
- •Definition
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Prevention of Contrast-Induced Nephropathy
- •Prognosis of CIN
- •Prevention of CIN
- •Postrenal AKI
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Intravenous Fluids for Postobstructive Diuresis
- •Parameters to Monitor in Postobstructive Diuresis
- •Medications and Procedures in AKI
- •Renal Consult for AKI
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Initial Considerations
- •Metabolic Acidosis
- •Causes
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Compensatory Mechanisms
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Metabolic Alkalosis
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Compensatory Mechanisms
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Respiratory Acidosis
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Compensatory Mechanisms
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Respiratory Alkalosis
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Compensatory Mechanisms
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Mixed Acid-Base Disorders
- •Interpretation of Blood Gas Measurements
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •General Concepts
- •Hyponatremia
- •Workup
- •History
- •Physical exam
- •Labs
- •Treatment
- •Hypernatremia
- •Workup
- •History
- •Physical exam
- •Labs
- •Treatment
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Introduction
- •Hyperkalemia
- •Etiology
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Signs and Symptoms
- •ECG Manifestations
- •Workup
- •Transtubular potassium concentration gradient
- •Plasma Aldosterone Concentration and Plasma Renin Activity
- •Treatment
- •Hypokalemia
- •Etiology
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Signs and Symptoms
- •ECG Manifestations
- •Workup
- •Random Urine Potassium–Creatinine Ratio
- •24 hr Urinary Potassium Excretion
- •PAC, PRA and PAC/PRA Ratio
- •Treatment
- •References
- •Key Pearls
- •Appendicitis
- •Clinical Presentation
- •Management
- •Acute Cholecystitis
- •Clinical Presentation
- •Management
- •Diverticulitis
- •Clinical Presentation
- •Management
- •Bowel Ischemia
- •Acute Mesenteric Ischemia
- •Clinical Presentation
- •Management
- •Colonic Ischemia
- •Clinical Presentation
- •Management
- •Iatrogenic Abdominal Pain
- •Urological/Renal or Gynecological Causes of Abdominal Pain
- •General Concerns
- •Pain Management

Discussion
The CURE trial meets all of the validity criteria, so is worth attending to
the results. The ARR with clopidogrel added to ASA versus placebo, was
2.1% using the composite outcome, at a mean follow-up of nine months.
The relative risk reduction was 20%.
6
Overall, approximately 50 people
need to be treated to avoid one outcome of CV death, non-fatal MI or
stroke, as compared with one major bleed caused for every 100 people
treated with this combination antiplatelet regimen.
Going back to our patient, Mrs. Geller fits well the inclusion criteria
of the CURE trial, has no increased bleeding risk, and is not going immediately for cardiac catheterization. You therefore order 300 mg of clopidogrel loading dose followed by 75 mg daily.
Economics
Health economics analyses inform policy-makers and clinicians by explicitly measuring and comparing the health outcomes value and costs associated with healthcare strategies. Health economics is essential to
determining the most equitable access to shared healthcare resources by
optimizing health outcomes per money spent. Individuals who pay for their
own healthcare are usually even more concerned about economics, as an
expensive test or treatment may mean difficult choices involving their
budget for housing, education, etc.
Clinical Scenario
Mr. Singh, a 54-year-old gentleman with hypertension, dyslipidemia, obesity (BMI = 38.4) and new onset diabetes mellitus type II, presents to your
office. He has been diligently attempting to lose weight for two years with
little to no success. You consider whether to enroll him in a multi-disciplinary weight loss program or refer him for bariatric surgery. You know
that bariatric surgery is very expensive but you have heard that it is also
very effective in helping patients lose weight and maintain weight loss.
24
S. Kharkhanechi et al.

Economics Study
A recent economic analysis carried out as part of a randomized trial was
performed on 60 subjects comparing outcomes and costs at two years of
laparoscopic adjustable gastric band plus conventional therapy with conventional therapy alone.
9
Economics Criteria
25
Evidence-based Medicine Primer
Table 4. Criteria for Evaluating a Study on Health Economics
10
a) Are the results valid (worth reading)?
Was the perspective of all relevant parties Data on costs and outcomes should include
included? all of the relevant groups impacted —
including the patient, provider, institution,
healthcare plan, and society-at-large.
Were both costs and outcomes considered? Full economic analysis requires patient-
important outcomes in addition to resource
utilization.
Were all relevant clinical strategies The strategies of interest should be
compared? compared to the relevant current standard
therapy.
Was clinical effectiveness established? No intervention or strategy will be cost-
effective if it is not effective. Economic
analyses generated within randomized
controlled trials benefit from high internal
validity but need to be scrutinized to see if
the results are generalizable to usual
clinical practice.
Were costs measured accurately? Costs often differ from charges; costs and
charges may vary dramatically across
jurisdictions. Likewise, idiosyncrasies in
clinical practice across jurisdictions for the
same condition can generate resource
utilization different from that measured in
the study.
(Continued )
https://avxhm.se/blogs/hill0

Discussion
Bariatric surgery is clinically effective in causing remission of diabetes
mellitus
11
but its cost-effectiveness has been unclear. A 2009 study tackled
this question by investigating the cost-effectiveness of laparoscopic gastric band surgery for patients with Type 2 diabetes who had failed lifestyle
26
S. Kharkhanechi et al.
Table 4. (Continued )
Was appropriate allowance made for Given that costs are often more uncertain
uncertainties in the analysis? than effectiveness, sensitivity analyses are
very important in economic analyses to
ensure that the range in possible costeffectiveness is captured.
b) What are the results?
What were the incremental costs and Costs should include all materials and
outcomes of each strategy? healthcare work hours. Outcomes are
usually summarized as cost per life year
saved or cost per quality-adjusted life year
gained (QALYs).
Do the incremental costs and outcomes As for any study, subgroup analyses should
differ between subgroups? be minimized, be specified a priori and be
considered as hypothesis-generating.
How much does allowance for uncertainty Sensitivity analyses which reveal a wide
change the results? range of cost-effectiveness will reduce
confidence in the results.
c) How can I apply the results to patient
care?
Are the treatment benefits worth the harms When a treatment is both more effective
and costs? and more expensive, incremental cost-
effectiveness estimates and range of
sensitivity analyses are key to informing
decisions regarding adoption.
Could we expect similar outcomes and Generalizability of outcomes is assessed as
costs with our patients? described in the “Therapy” section. Costs
may differ depending on the local price of
materials and clinical practice patterns.

management. A healthcare sector viewpoint was used.9 Effectiveness was
based on results of a two-year randomized trial, so it is likely that testing
and follow-up was more intensive (and therefore more costly) than would
occur in usual practice. Uncertainty in costs was accounted for with
appropriate modeling but the study is based on only 60 patients, thus raising concerns about the adequacy of the cost-effectiveness estimates.
Surgical therapy resulted in remission of diabetes more frequently than
conventional therapy alone, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio
of US $12,300 per case of diabetes remitted. Expressing the outcome in
terms of diabetes remitted, while a relevant clinical outcome, is less helpful than the more global patient-important outcome of quality-adjusted
life year gained.
Going back to the case, Mr. Singh is similar to those in the study, so
the treating physician might expect a similar clinical outcome. Costs,
however, would likely not be similar as the study was performed in
Australia, where healthcare costs are generally lower than in the United
States or Canada. In addition, quality of life was not measured. Overall,
although this cost-effectiveness ratio is attractive, you are unsure of its
generalizability to your patient. After discussion with Mr. Singh, you
decide to investigate the extent of his insurance coverage for this procedure and meet again to discuss. You also ask Mr. Singh to read the “plain
language” summary of the Cochrane systematic review,
11
which is meant
to provide patients with the key results.
References
1. Bates SM, Grand’Maison A, Johnston M, et al. (2001) A latex Ddimer reliably excludes venous thromboembolism. Arch Intern Med
161(3): 447–453.
2. Richardson WS, Wilson MC. (2008) The process of diagnosis —
Chapter 14. In: Guyatt G, Rennie D, Meade MO, Cook DJ (eds),
User’s Guide to the Medical Literature: A Manual for Evidence-Based
Clinical Practice, 2nd ed. American Medical Association, New York,
pp. 399–406.
27
Evidence-based Medicine Primer
https://avxhm.se/blogs/hill0

3. Richardson WS, Wilson MC, McGinn TG. (2008) Differential diagnosis — Chapter 15. In: Guyatt G, Rennie D, Meade MO, Cook DJ,
(eds) User’s Guide to the Medical Literature: A Manual for Evidence-
Based Clinical Practice, 2nd ed. American Medical Association, New
York, pp. 407–417.
4. Bates SM, Kearon C, Crowther M, et al. (2003) A diagnostic strategy
involving a quantitative latex D-Dimer assay reliably excludes deep
venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med 138: 787–794.
5. Chandratheva A, Geraghty O, Luengo-Fernandez R, et al. (2010)
ABCD2 score predicts severity rather than risk of early recurrent
events after transient ischemic attack. Stroke 41(5): 851–856.
6. Randolph A, Cook DJ and Guyatt G. (2008) Prognosis — Chapter 18.
In: Guyatt G, Rennie D, Meade MO, Cook DJ, (eds), Users’ Guides to
the Medical Literature: A Manual for Evidence-Based Clinical Practice,
2nd ed. American Medical Association, New York, pp. 509–520.
7. CURE Study Investigators. (2001) Effects of clopidogrel in addition
to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without
ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med 345: 494–502.
8. Guyatt G, Straus S, Meade MO, et al. (2008) Therapy (randomized
trials) Chapter 6. In: Guyatt G, Rennie D, Meade MO, Cook DJ, (eds).
User’s Guide to the Medical Literature: A Manual for EvidenceBased Clinical Practice, 2nd ed. American Medical Association, New
York, pp. 67–86.
9. Keating CL, Dixon JB, Moodie ML, et al. (2009) Cost-efficacy of
surgically induced weight loss for the management of type 2 diabetes:
A randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 32(4): 580–584.
10. Drummond MF, Sculpher MJ, Torrance GW, et al. (2005) Methods for
the Economic Evaluation of Health Care Programmes, 3rd ed. Oxford
University Press, Oxford, England.
11. Colquitt JL, Picot J, Loveman E, Clegg AJ. (2009) Surgery for
obesity. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 2.
28
S. Kharkhanechi et al.

On the Fly: Using Electronic Resources
to Enhance Evidence-based Practice
Deborah R. Korenstein* and Laura Schimming*
Key Pearls
• Asking frequent questions is the key to evidence-based practice.
• Hospitalists can use pre-appraised electronic resources to quickly find
evidence-based answers to clinical questions.
• For general questions about disease pathophysiology and treatment
(“background questions”), topic summaries are most helpful.
• For specific questions about particular treatments or diagnostic tests
(“foreground questions”), systematic reviews or summaries of systematic
reviews are often most helpful.
• Practitioners should try various resources to find the most helpful ones.
Introduction
The rise of hospital medicine as an independent discipline over the last
decade has coincided with an explosion in Internet-based electronic
resources. At the same time, the nature of hospital stays has evolved so
that patients are sicker, length of stay is shorter and physicians are busier
with admitting and discharging responsibilities.
1,2
Hospitalists are under
pressure to provide high quality evidence-based care but there are many
challenges to this task, including an exponential rise in the volume of
29
3
Chapter
*Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
https://avxhm.se/blogs/hill0

medical literature, time, and lack of expertise in evidence-based medicine
(EBM).
3
The purpose of this chapter is to help hospitalists access and
master the information resource tools they need to become efficient realtime practitioners of EBM, particularly pre-appraised resources, and to
provide a summary of useful resources.
In recent years, experts in EBM have shifted their emphasis from the
critical appraisal of individual studies to the mastery of pre-appraised
resources.
4
Pre-appraised resources are produced by evidence experts and
are designed to be easily utilized by clinicians. The best pre-appraised
resources are current, undergoing nearly constant updating, “filtered” in that
they select for the best available evidence related to the issue at hand, and
processed so that the evidence is presented in a manner which is helpful to
a busy clinician. Incorporating pre-appraised resources into practice can
help hospitalists and others become master evidence-based practitioners.
A New Paradigm: The Evidence Hierarchy
The new paradigm for practicing EBM incorporates a hierarchy of evidence. In the model posed by Haynes and others,
4
these resources form a
pyramid with increasing levels of information filtering. Individual studies
form the base of the pyramid, followed by study summaries, systematic
reviews, summaries of systematic reviews, evidence-based topic reviews
(such as review articles or textbook chapters) and finally, computerized
decision support systems at the top. Different types of questions are best
answered by resources at different points on the pyramid.
There are many widely available electronic resources which can be
utilized in real time to facilitate patient care, though their reliability and
usefulness vary. In general, when evaluating a new resource, clinicians
should look for ratings of evidence quality, sometimes presented as levels
of evidence in support of each statement or recommendation. Resources
which provide consistent evidence ratings for all clinical recommendations are generally more reliable than those without, since they are
transparent about the basis of each statement. When searching resources
which are higher in the pyramid, such as a summary of systematic reviews
30
D. R. Korenstein and L. Schimming

on a topic, it is better to use fewer and simpler terms and then navigate
within the site until an answer is found. These databases tend to be
smaller, so complex searches may miss relevant entries, and they often
have well-designed internal navigation tools. When searching near the
base of the pyramid, such as Medline, which is a very large database, it
is best to use more specific search terms. Table 1 summarizes a number of
useful resources, including many pre-appraised resources, and indicates
the type of information contained, the presence of consistent quality ratings, the Internet address and other details about access and usability.
Many of these resources require subscriptions, which are often held by
medical libraries.
Becoming an Evidence-based Practitioner
To become an evidence based practitioner and utilize the evidence hierarchy, clinicians should begin by asking questions, since good questions
prompt searches for high quality answers. In general, clinicians should
ask questions of themselves, questioning even common practice and of
consultants, demanding evidence in support of recommendations. They
can then begin looking for answers at the highest possible point on the
evidence pyramid and move down if no evidence is found. The starting
point to answer a given question depends upon the nature of the question.
For Background questions, which relate to basic information about a
topic, it is best to go first to evidence-based topic summaries. An example of a background question is “How is thrombotic thrombocytopenic
purpura (TTP) treated?” Foreground questions are specific, concerning,
for example, the impact of a certain treatment on a particular outcome in
a specific patient population. Answers to foreground questions might be
found in topic summaries if they relate to an issue which has been
addressed by many studies, but if the issue is less well studied it might
be better to start with systematic reviews or summaries of individual
studies. An example of a foreground question is, “In young women with
TTP, does plasma exchange improve mortality as compared with treatment with steroids?”
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D. R. Korenstein and L. Schimming
Table 1. EBM Resources
Ease Frequency Clinical Summaries of Single
of of Quality Topic Systematic Systematic Study Individual
Resource Use Updates1Ratings Summaries Reviews Reviews Summaries Studies Comments
ACP Journal Club Monthly None Browse by issue or
search using
http://www.acpjc.org keywords. Limit by
article type. Search
engine will expand
search with
synonyms from a
custom thesaurus.
Clinical Evidence Daily Systematic Browse alphabetically
or by section.
http://clinical-evidence. Search using
bmj.com keywords. Use
horizontal menu at
top of page to
select each topic
section. Outline
format.
(Continued)
1
Based on claims from each website.

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Table 1. (Continued )
Ease Frequency Clinical Summaries of Single
of of Quality Topic Systematic Systematic Study Individual
Resource Use Updates1Ratings Summaries Reviews Reviews Summaries Studies Comments
Cochrane Database Monthly None Somewhat easy
of Systematic to use. Browse
Reviews (CDSR) for topics using
several criteria.
http://www. Advanced search
thecochranelibrary.com page allows
Medical Subject
Heading (MeSH)
searching and
full-text searching.
Cochrane Database Monthly None Select DARE from
of Abstracts of under “Browse
Reviews of Other Resources”
Effects (DARE) on the Cochrane
Library home page.
http://www. Or, do a keyword
thecochranelibrary.com search and select
“Other Reviews”
from the top of the
results page to limit
to DARE reviews.
(Continued)
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