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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5881_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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N. Chowdhury etal.
2.6.5 Triple Network Hydrogel
The BC–PVA–PAMPS triple network hydrogel exhibits similar aggregate permeability, and compressive-tensile modulus as cartilage, displaying comparable deformation that changes over time under conned compression, while also demonstrating
non-toxicity, high tensile modulus 10–30MPa, permeability value (3.2×10
compressive modulus 10–20MPa, 45% lower friction coefcient than cartilage
(0.06), and 4.4× more surface wear resistance than a single network PVA hydrogel,
1mm for 105cycles [109]. The physical properties of SB/PVA triple network hydrogels were tremendously enhanced, with a 461% increase in compressible strength
with a 116% increase in stretching strength compared to pure PVA hydrogel [110].
Other triple-network hydrogels, such as PAA/Agar/PVA [118], TN (fracture stress:
450 kPa, compression strength: 1337 kPa), PVA/B TN [119] (toughness, rapid
recovery, and self-healing ability), PAA/Gela/PVA TN [120] (fracture stress:
808 kPa, compressive strength: 4443 kPa, compressive modulus: 39 MPa), and
PVA/PVP/PAA TN (fracture stress: 1.87MPa, compressive stress: 3.5MPa, friction
coefcient: 0.15) as shown in Figs.2.38 and 2.39, also exhibited superior mechanical properties and potential applications in biomedicine and human motion monitoring [122]. By using PVA, AA, and PVP as three major materials, the PVA/PVP/PAA
hydrogel exhibited a maximum friction coefcient of 0.45, which even reduced
more to a value of 0.15 when the Zn2+ content reached a low of 0.8g [122]. At an
SB content of 0.4wt%, the PVA/SB triple network hydrogels exhibited reduced
friction, with a coefcient of friction of 0.077, suggesting that the hydrogel perceives more improved compressive properties and uniform porous structure at this
particular SB content. The biphasic nature of PVA/SB TN hydrogel, consisting of
interstitial water as a uid phase and a permeable solid phase, contributes to its
frictional properties through water re-absorption and elastic energy dissipation,
while the presence of non-covalent and reversible coordination bonds and oating
linear polymer chains further enhances lubrication and reduces shear stress, particularly under higher loads [110]. A composite of PVA/PEG-glycerol considered as
triple network hydrogel was successfully fabricated via a physical freeze-drying
crosslinking method which is also known as physical crosslinking, demonstrating a
tensile strength for 270% elongation at a break of 26.6MPa when incorporating
−18m2
),
Fig. 2.39 Stress vs
compression value for not
only triple but also single
and double network
hydrogel [117]
2 Characterization ofHydrogel Properties intheAdvancement ofBio-Tribology
Fig. 2.40 Compressive
stress vs. strain value for
three types of network
hydrogels [117]
63
glycerol as a percentage of 20wt% as a plasticizer, meeting the requirements close
to the characteristics of natural cartilage [142]. Another triple network hydrogel
composed of poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide), alginate, and carbon nanobers demonstrated impressive mechanical and physical properties, including compression
stress of 3MPa, and exhibited notable electric conductivity of 66mS/cm. The successful synthesis of a hydrogel network with a combination of ionic and covalent
entanglement, incorporating carbon nanobers, poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide), and
alginate, resulted in an electrically conducting and robust hydrogel. This conductive
hydrogel exhibits thermal activation capabilities, which can be achieved through
direct Joule heating or uid immersion methods [111]. Though the mechanical
properties of most TN hydrogels have been investigated for compressive strength,
tensile strength, storage modulus, fracture energy, and fatigue strength, much work
has not been accomplished to understand the structural and tribological behaviors of
these hydrogels (Fig.2.40).
2.7 Structural andMechanical Property Relation
withSurface Properties
2.7.1 Mechanical Properties
The occurrence of local collagen rupture within articular cartilage could result in a
decrease in the effective elastic modulus (En), consequently leading to reduced
interlayer lubrication under all circumstances. Extended periods of joint inactivity
may lead to a gradual decline in uid pressure, potentially causing harm if joint
movement resumes without adequate uid pressure. Although the exact correlation
between biochemical response and stress state is not fully understood, the model
proposes that osteoarthritis (OA) may increase tribological shear stress in
64
N. Chowdhury etal.
comparison to uid pressure. As a result, the degenerative alterations related to OA
could impede interstitial lubrication and substantially modify the stress state, leading to potential adverse cellular reactions [143, 180–184]. The stiffness increases
with solid matrix concentration, and it affects the tribological properties [66]. With
increasing force, the friction coefcient of cartilage decreases [60], the same was
observed for the hydrogels too [144]. In brief, during short loading times, the uid
phase within cartilage predominantly carries the load, leading to minimal friction.
However, as the interval for adding load extends, more synovial uid is displaced
from the area of contact, diminishing the capacity of load bearing of the uid phase.
The Hertz contact model is used for two elastic spheres, or two elastic bodies deformation equation is given below:
123
4
FERd=
3
2
For adhesive contact, Derjaguin-Muller-Toporov (DMT) and Johnson-KendallRoberts (JKR) models are used [145]. For rough surface and statistical distribution
of asperities, the Greenwood-Williamson model is used and for plastic deformation,
the elastic-plastic contact model is used [146, 147]. Consequently, the friction
between the sliding surfaces increases during startup as the force is conveyed to the
solid area of the cartilage. Surprisingly, despite the coefcient of friction decreasing
with higher loads, it was evident that with the applied load, the force generated due
to friction did not increase proportionally due to the morphology as shown in
Fig.2.41. This observation suggests the presence of an external factor like support
Fig. 2.41 The present
summary provides an
overview of how the
mechanical properties,
biochemical content of
cartilage, and gross
morphology contribute to
sustaining tribological
function in the diarthrodial
joint. In the depicted
panels, the left side
showcases diseased
cartilage, while the right
side exhibits healthy
cartilage. Notably, the
mechanical properties,
biochemical content, and
gross morphology are
found to be compromised
when it is diseased
cartilage [11]
2 Characterization ofHydrogel Properties intheAdvancement ofBio-Tribology
65
from the interstitial uid that subtly inuences the frictional properties of articular
cartilage. Further research is needed to fully comprehend these complexities in cartilage mechanics [132]. With increasing force, the friction coefcient decreases,
once a specic sliding speed threshold is reached, the friction coefcient again
increases [60, 124, 125]. The stiffness increases with solid matrix concentration,
and it affects the tribological properties.
In the examination of SEM, TEM, and AFM images, a collapsed brous structure in dehydrated articular cartilage models due to uid removal was observed.
However, the treated cartilage samples showed complete recovery of their mechanical properties, suggesting a potential reconstitution of the network structure upon
rehydration, apart from the supercial zone, where permanent alterations were
detected. These alterations included reduced surface porosity and a less prominent
ber network, which did not signicantly affect the creep and friction behaviors
upon physiological rehydration. Despite the cartilage’s limited ability to repair
itself, its high endurance and robustness compensate for this deciency [148,
185–187].
2.7.2 Structural Properties
The frictional characteristics of both cartilage and hydrogels are predominantly
inuenced by permeability and uidic support within the interstitial joints, resulting
in an articular cartilage-like response. A notable improvement in the frictional
response can be achieved in both cartilage and hydrogels by reducing their respective pore sizes. Interestingly, friction tests conducted on these materials revealed
minimal wear, with surface morphology changes observed during the early phases
of wear, which are completely unrelated to the equilibrium friction coefcient.
Therefore, it is essential to consider both wear and friction measurements to accurately investigate the tribological and structural performance of both cartilage and
hydrogels. Furthermore, changing mesh size and pore size not only enhances the
frictional behavior but also enhances the mechanical rigidity of both silk broin
hydrogels and cartilage, without compromising either of these aspects. This simultaneous enhancement demonstrates the promising potential of pore size reduction as
an effective approach for optimizing the performance of both cartilage and hydrogels [66, 149, 150, 188–190]. It is observed that the alloy design and fabrication
plays an integral role in the performances [191–197]. Laser-assisted fabrication can
be a potential method in tuning the surface and texture [198–200].
However, there has been a contradiction in the mesh size relation with friction
properties in many other works on hydrogels. They nd an inverse correlation
between friction and mesh size. The permeability effect of these hydrogels for friction is yet to be investigated [124, 125, 144]. In the context of cartilage, minor varia-
tions in the coefcient of friction were observed between fresh and rehydrated
samples. Upon analyzing different rehydration uids, it was found that hypotonic
rehydration substantially raised friction coefcients for all sliding speeds, except
66
[]
pp
N. Chowdhury etal.
the slowest [148, 201–204]. In articular cartilage, the elastic resistance of collagen
contributes to stiffness elastic energy storage capacity, and rigidity of the compact
framework in shear, while proteoglycans within the collagen matrix induce preexisting tensile stress in collagen bers, enhancing its properties [205–209].
Therefore, the design of the systems is very important in considering the inuences
of vacuum [210, 211], temperature, and humidity on the characterization of hydrogel properties in bio-tribology [212, 213]. Vacuum environments eliminate trapped
gases, providing clearer insights into intrinsic hydrogel properties. Temperature
variations affect swelling behavior and mechanical responses, while humidity alters
hydration states and mechanical properties. Regarding machining methods, particularly CNC, precise control over cutting parameters enables tailored surface topographies. These surfaces can optimize bio-tribological performance by reducing
friction and wear and promoting tissue integration. CNC machining offers a pathway to engineer hydrogel-based components for enhanced functionality in biological environments [214].
Additionally, the solid matrix structure of cartilage demonstrates intrinsic poroelastic and viscoelastic behavior under shear stress, with collagen brils playing a
crucial role in imparting energy storage capabilities and shear stiffness [151].
kke
Ny
=
0
The coefcient N represents the permeability-strain logarithmic relationship
obtained and the strain was transformed to porosity, using the following equation,
where p0 represents initial porosity with no strain, k0 represents intrinsic permeability [151].
−
ε
0
=
+
p
1
0
2.8 Conclusion
The surface properties of cartilage decide the comfort to humans. Various factors,
such as direct trauma, obesity, immobilization, and repetitive loading, have been
identied to predispose articular cartilage to degeneration. This degeneration could
increase the friction behavior by altering the lubrication as numerous factors inuence the tribological characteristics, such as or including the composition, ultrastructure, and roles or purposes of articular cartilage are interconnected, applied
force, sliding speed, viscous shear, and any disease, injury, or abnormal loading
condition that alters its composition or ultrastructure can negatively impact the
joint’s load-bearing capacity. It is yet to fully understand the lubrication and friction
mechanism because of the biphasic nature of these materials of articular cartilage
2 Characterization ofHydrogel Properties intheAdvancement ofBio-Tribology
67
and prospective hydrogels for articular cartilage replacement. Articular cartilage
has complex synovial uidwhich is composed of various components like HA,
lubricin, and Aggrecan. Separating these components and dening the individual
effect of these components from the synovial uid are complicated and yet to be
fully understood. Additionally, the phases of lubrication are explained in this review
but their transition parameters and reasons for transitioning from one phase to
another are not completely understood by researchers. Understanding the complex
interplay of friction and lubrication in cartilage is essential for developing effective
strategies to address joint disorders and osteoarthritis. By exploring the molecular
and mechanical properties of cartilage, researchers can gain valuable insights into
optimizing hydrogel formulations to mimic natural cartilage and enhance wear
resistance. Academic investigations into novel biomaterials and lubrication mechanisms hold promise in creating functional cartilage substitutes that can provide
long-lasting relief to patients suffering from joint degeneration. Many other composite materials can evolve like triple network hydrogels to optimize the characteristics of articial articular cartilage by understanding their mechanical, structural,
and tribological behaviors.
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