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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5881_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
X
- •Aim and Scope
- •Preface
- •Acknowledgments
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •About the Editors
- •1.1 Introduction
- •1.2.1 Friction
- •1.2.1.3 Friction Under Lubricated Conditions
- •1.7.1 Joint Tribology
- •1.7.2 Skin Tribology
- •1.7.3 Oral Tribology
- •1.8 Summary
- •References
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.3.1 Fluid Pressurization/Fluid-Film Lubrication
- •2.3.2 Boundary Lubrication
- •2.3.3 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
- •2.3.4 Squeeze-Film Lubrication
- •2.3.5 Synovial Fluid
- •2.3.6 Hydration Lubrication
- •2.5.2 Scaffolds
- •2.5.3 Synthetic Polymer
- •2.5.4 Polyacrylamide
- •2.5.5 PEG Hydrogel
- •2.5.6 PVA Hydrogel
- •2.5.7 Double Network Hydrogel
- •2.5.8 Triple Network Hydrogel
- •2.6.1 Polyacrylamide
- •2.6.2 PEG Hydrogel
- •2.6.3 PVA Hydrogel
- •2.6.4 Double Network Hydrogel
- •2.6.5 Triple Network Hydrogel
- •2.7.1 Mechanical Properties
- •2.7.2 Structural Properties
- •2.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.3.1 Label-Based Biosensors
- •3.3.2 Label-Free Biosensors
- •3.4 Different Nanobiosensing Techniques
- •3.4.1 Optical Sensing
- •3.4.2 Electrochemical/Electrical Sensing
- •3.4.3 Magnetic Sensing
- •3.4.4 Mass-Based Sensing
- •3.6.2 Neurodegenerative Diseases
- •3.6.3 Infectious Diseases
- •3.6.4 Metabolic Diseases
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2.1 Surface Functionalization
- •4.2.2 Bioconjugation
- •4.3 Synthesis Approach
- •4.3.1 Hydrothermal Method
- •4.3.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
- •4.3.3 Wet Chemical Method
- •4.4 Plasmonic Black Bodies (PBBs)
- •4.4.1 Gold NP (AuNPs)-Based PBB
- •4.4.2 Silver NPs (Ag NPs)-Based PBB
- •4.4.3 Platinum NPs (Pt NPs)-Based PBB
- •4.5 Biomimetic NP
- •4.6 Upconverting NP (UCNP)
- •4.6.1 Synthesis
- •4.7 Inorganic NP
- •4.7.1 Synthesis
- •4.8 Photothermal Therapy (PTT)
- •4.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Human Skin
- •5.10 Future Scope
- •5.11 Conclusion
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.1.1 Class 1
- •6.1.2 Class 2
- •6.1.3 Class 3
- •6.4.1.1 Surface Patterning
- •6.4.1.2 Direct-Write Patterning
- •6.4.1.5 Dip-Pen Nanotechnology
- •6.4.1.7 Composing Using Beams
- •6.4.1.8 Direct Write Photolithography (DWP)
- •6.4.1.9 Light-Beam Lithography Electron
- •6.4.1.10 Focused Ion Beam Lithography
- •6.4.2 Fabrication Techniques
- •6.4.2.4 Non-invasive Glucose Monitoring Devices Technique
- •6.4.2.6 Cost-Effective Electrochemical Voltametric Sensors Techniques
- •6.4.2.7 Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing Techniques
- •6.4.2.8 UV-LED Stereolithography Printer Technique
- •6.4.2.9 4D Printing Techniques
- •6.4.2.10 Advanced Biomedical Techniques Involving Biorobots
- •References
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.6 Mechanical Biocompatibility Challenges
- •7.7 Poor Bio-Printing Resolution
- •7.9 Limited Biomaterial Selection
- •7.11 Conclusion
- •8.2 Animal Tribology
- •8.2.1 Joint
- •8.2.3 Integumentary Change
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.3.1 Nanotribology
- •8.4 Green Tribology
- •8.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.2 Bio-Tribological Issues
- •9.3.2 Bone Fracture Fixation
- •9.3.4 Cardiovascular Devices
- •9.3.5 Minimal Invasive Surgical Devices
- •References
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2.2.1 Structural Integrity
- •10.2.2.2 Controlled Release Properties
- •10.2.2.3 Enhanced Drug Loading Capacity
- •10.2.2.4 Tailored Material Properties
- •10.2.3.1 Biocompatibility
- •10.2.3.3 Mechanical Properties
- •10.2.3.4 Drug Compatibility
- •10.2.3.5 Fabrication Compatibility
- •10.3.1 Matrix Material Properties
- •10.3.4 Biocompatibility Assessment
- •10.3.4.1 In Vitro Cell Culture Studies
- •10.3.4.2 Hemocompatibility Studies
- •10.3.4.3 In Vivo Animal Studies
- •10.3.4.4 Histological Analysis
- •10.3.4.5 Immune Response Evaluation
- •10.3.4.6 Biodegradation Assessment
- •10.4 Surface Engineering Considerations
- •10.4.2.1 Surface Coatings
- •10.4.2.2 Plasma Treatment
- •10.4.2.3 Surface Grafting
- •10.4.2.4 Dip Coating
- •10.4.2.5 Spray Coating System
- •10.4.2.6 Electrotreated Coating
- •10.4.2.9 Microfabrication Techniques
- •10.4.2.10 Surface Roughness Control
- •10.5.1.2 Mechanical Properties
- •10.5.1.3 Surface Characteristics
- •10.5.1.4 Release Kinetics Analysis
- •10.5.1.5 Biological Compatibility
- •10.5.1.7 Other Analyses
- •10.6 Advanced Fabrication Techniques
- •10.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)
- •11.3 Shape Memory Polymers
- •11.3.1 Heat
- •11.3.2 Light
- •11.3.3 Magnetic Field
- •11.4 Shape-Changing Hydrogels
- •11.5 Biomedical Applications
- •11.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •12.1 Introduction
- •12.3 Bioresorbable Orthopedic Implants
- •12.4.1 Polylactides
- •12.4.2 Poly (Ortho Esters)
- •12.4.3 Polyphosphoesters
- •12.4.4 Polyphosphazenes
- •12.4.5 Polycaprolactone
- •12.4.6 Polyurethanes
- •12.4.7 Polycarbonates
- •12.5.1 Compression Molding
- •12.5.2 Transfer Molding
- •12.5.3 Injection Molding
- •12.5.4 Extrusion
- •12.5.5 Blow Molding
- •12.5.6 Calendering Process
- •12.5.7 Fiber Spinning
- •12.5.8 Thermoforming
- •12.5.9 Polymer Foaming
- •12.7 Challenges
- •12.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.3.1.1 Total Hip Replacement (THR)
- •13.3.2 Resurfacing Hip Replacement (RHR)
- •13.5.1 Adhesive Wear
- •13.5.2 Abrasive Wear
- •13.5.3 Fatigue Wear
- •13.5.4 Corrosion/Oxidative Wear
- •13.5.5 Surface Cracking
- •13.6.1 Metallic Implants
- •13.6.1.1 Stainless Steel
- •13.6.1.2 Co-Cr Alloys
- •13.6.1.3 Ti-Alloy
- •13.6.2 Ceramic Implants
- •13.6.3 Polymer Implants
- •13.6.4 Composite Implants
- •13.6.5.2 Surface Coatings
- •13.7.2.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
- •13.7.2.2 Boundary Lubrication
- •13.7.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
- •13.7.3 Biomimetic Lubrication Approaches
- •13.7.3.1 Replicating Natural Lubrication Mechanisms
- •13.7.4.1 Implant Wear
- •13.7.4.3 Synovial Fluid Degradation
- •13.8.1 Hydroxyapatite Coatings
- •13.8.1.1 Bone Integration
- •13.8.1.2 Implant Stability
- •13.8.1.4 Biocompatibility
- •13.8.2 Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings
- •13.8.3 Metal Nitride Coatings
- •13.8.4 Polymeric Coatings
- •13.8.5 Nanocomposite Coatings
- •13.9.1 Pin-on-Disk Testing
- •13.9.2 Hip Joint Simulators
- •13.9.3 Knee Joint Simulators
- •13.9.4 Tribo-Corrosion Testing
- •13.9.5 Wear Debris Analysis Techniques
- •13.9.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
- •13.9.5.2 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
- •13.10.1.1 Tailored Geometries
- •13.10.1.2 Improved Wear Characteristics
- •13.10.1.3 Accelerated Innovation
- •13.10.2.1 Real-Time Wear Monitoring
- •13.10.2.2 Functionality Assessment
- •13.10.2.3 Implant Status Monitoring
- •13.10.2.4 Patient-Centric Healthcare
- •13.10.3.1 Advanced Biomaterials
- •13.10.3.4 Multidisciplinary Approaches
- •13.10.4.1 Wear Data Analysis
- •13.10.4.2 Predictive Wear Patterns
- •13.10.4.3 Early Intervention Strategies
- •13.10.4.4 Personalized Treatment Plans
- •13.11 Conclusion
- •References
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.2.1 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
- •14.2.2 Directed Energy Deposition
- •14.3.1 Extrusion-Based AM
- •14.5 Biomanufacturing
- •14.5.1 Tissue Engineering
- •14.5.2 Organ-on-a-Chip Models
- •14.6 Conclusion
- •References
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10 Composites forDrug-Eluting Devices: Emerging Biomedical Applications
221. Kumar A, Datta S, Kalyanasundaram D (2018a) Reduction of hydraulic friction in conned ows by laser texturing: Experiments and theoretical validation. In: ASME 2018 16th
International Conference on Nanochannels, Microchannels, and Minichannels, ICNMM 2018.
222. Madrid, A.P.M., etal., Advances in additive manufacturing for bone tissue engineering scaf-
folds. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 2019. 100: p.631–644.
223. Qu, H., Additive manufacturing for bone tissue engineering scaffolds. Materials Today
Communications, 2020. 24: p.101024.
224. Farré-Guasch, E., etal., Application of additive manufacturing in oral and maxillofacial sur-
gery. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 2015. 73(12): p.2408–2418.
225. Kumar A, Datta S, Kalyanasundaram D (2018b) Liquid Slippage in Conned Flows: Effect
of Periodic Micropatterns of Arbitrary Pitch and Amplitude. J Heat Transfer 140.
226. Kumar A, Datta S, Kalyanasundaram D (2016c) Liquid slippage in con ned ows: effect of
periodic micropatterns of arbitrary pitch and amplitude. In: ASME 2016 5th Micro/Nanoscale
Heat and Mass Transfer International Conference (MNHMT2016), Biopolis, Singapore.
227. Kumar A, Gangwar AKS, Kumar A, Meena CS, Singh VP, Dutt N, Prasad A, Gori Y (2022b)
Biomedical study of femur bone fracture and healing. In: Advanced Materials for Biomedical
Applications. CRC Press, pp.235–250.
228. Kumar A, Gupta A, Kant R, Akhtar SN, Tiwari N, Ramkumar J, Bhattacharya S (2013)
Optimization of laser machining process for the preparation of photomasks, and its application to microsystems fabrication. J Micro/Nanolithography, MEMS, MOEMS 12.
229. Kumar A, Keerti S, Jain J, Sinha S, Tekumalla S, Gupta M (2018c) Investigations of Wear
Response of Pure Mg and Mg-0.4 Ce-Y2O3/ZnO Nanocomposites Using a Single and
Repeated Scratch Tests. Tribol Trans 61:951–959.
230. Kumar A, Panda U (2022) Microuidics-based devices and their role on point-of-care testing.
In: Biosensor Based Advanced Cancer Diagnostics. Elsevier, pp.197–224.
231. Zadpoor, A.A. and J. Malda, Additive manufacturing of biomaterials, tissues, and organs.
2017, Springer. p.1–11.
232. Garot, C., G.Bettega, and C.Picart, Additive manufacturing of material scaffolds for bone
regeneration: toward application in the clinics. Advanced functional materials, 2021. 31(5):
p.2006967.
233. Kumar A, Panda U, Patel VK, Kant R (2022c) Laser-Assisted Fabrication of Polymers by
Pushing Down the Limit of Resolution. Trends Fabr Polym Polym Compos 1–3.
234. Kumar A, Parihar A, Basha SN, Panda U (2022d) Clinically available/under trial drugs and
vaccines for treatment of SARS-COV-2. In: Computational Approaches for Novel Therapeutic
and Diagnostic Designing to Mitigate SARS-CoV2 Infection. Elsevier, pp.451–488.
235. Kumar A, Parihar A, Panda U, Parihar DS (2022e) Microuidics-based point-of-care testing
(POCT) devices in dealing with waves of COVID-19 pandemic: The emerging solution. ACS
Appl Bio Mater 5:2046–2068.
236. Gaharwar, A.K., et al., 2D nanoclay for biomedical applications: regenerative medicine,
therapeutic delivery, and additive manufacturing. Advanced Materials, 2019. 31(23):
p.1900332.
237. Sheoran, A.J., etal., Bio-medical applications of additive manufacturing: a review. Procedia
Manufacturing, 2020. 51: p.663–670.
238. Dhavalikar, P., etal., Biomedical applications of additive manufacturing, in Biomaterials
Science. 2020, Elsevier. p.623–639.
239. Davoodi, P., etal., Drug delivery systems for programmed and on-demand release. Advanced
drug delivery reviews, 2018. 132: p.104–138.
240. Kumar A, Pathak A, Kumar A, Kumar A (2023a) Physics of Laser--Matter Interaction in
Laser-Based Manufacturing. In: Laser-based Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing.
CRC Press, pp.45–54.
241. Kumar A, Sharma AK, Katiyar JK (2023b) State-of-the-Art in Sustainable Machining of
Different Materials Using Nano Minimum Quality Lubrication (NMQL). Lubricants 11:64.
309

310
242. Kumar A, Shrama AK, Gupta TVK, Katiyar JK (2022f) Inuence of hexagonal boron nitride
additive nanocutting uid on the machining of AA6061-T6 alloy using minimum quality
lubrication. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part E J Process Mech Eng 09544089221110980.
243. Kumar S, Verma RK, Kumar A, Patel VK (2022g) Importance of Chemically Treated Natural
Fibers in the Fabrication of Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites. Trends Fabr
Polym Polym Compos 10–11.
244. Leventini SD, Martin-Gutierrez BS, Kumar A, Mittman AS, Kim SM, Martini A (2022) Tactile
Perception of Vellum Quantied by Friction and Surface Roughness. Tribol Lett 70:127.
245. Thomas, N.G., et al., Toxicity Evaluation and Biocompatibility of Nanostructured
Biomaterials, in Cytotoxicity. 2023, IntechOpen.
246. Bergstrand, M., etal., A semi-mechanistic modeling strategy to link invitro and invivo drug
release for modied release formulations. Pharmaceutical research, 2012. 29: p.695–706.
247. Teixeira, M.O., J.C.Antunes, and H.P.Felgueiras, Recent advances in ber–hydrogel com-
posites for wound healing and drug delivery systems. Antibiotics, 2021. 10(3): p.248.
248. Wang, J., etal., Emerging 3D printing technologies for drug delivery devices: Current status
and future perspective. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2021. 174: p.294–316.
249. Frketic, J., T. Dickens, and S.Ramakrishnan, Automated manufacturing and processing of
ber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites: An additive review of contemporary and modern techniques for advanced materials manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 2017. 14:
p.69–86.
250. Efferth, T. and E. Koch, Complex interactions between phytochemicals. The multi-target
therapeutic concept of phytotherapy. Current drug targets, 2011. 12(1): p.122–132.
251. Anighoro, A., J. Bajorath, and G.Rastelli, Polypharmacology: challenges and opportuni-
ties in drug discovery: miniperspective. Journal of medicinal chemistry, 2014. 57(19):
p.7874–7887.
252. Jayaraman, P., et al., Controlled release of drugs in electrosprayed nanoparticles for bone
tissue engineering. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2015. 94: p.77–95.
253. Mehra AK, Saini R, Kumar A (2021) The effect of bre contents on mechanical and moisture absorption properties of gourd sponge/coir bre reinforced epoxy hybrid composites.
Compos Commun 25:100732.
254. Parihar A, Kumar A, Panda U, Khan R, Parihar DS, Khan R (2023) Cryopreservation: A
Comprehensive Overview, Challenges, and Future Perspectives. Adv Biol 2200285.
255. Parihar A, Pandita V, Kumar A, Parihar DS, Puranik N, Bajpai T, Khan R (2021) 3D Printing:
Advancement in Biogenerative Engineering to Combat Shortage of Organs and Bioapplicable
Materials. Regen Eng Transl Med 1–27.
256. Parmar V, Kumar A, Mani Sankar M, Datta S, Vijaya Prakash G, Mohanty S,
Kalyanasundaram D (2018) Oxidation facilitated antimicrobial ability of laser micro-textured titanium alloy against gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus for biomedical applications. J Laser Appl 30.
257. Parmar V, Kumar A, Prakash GV, Datta S, Kalyanasundaram D (2019) Investigation, modelling and validation of material separation mechanism during ber laser machining of medical
grade titanium alloy Ti6Al4V and stainless steel SS316L.Mech Mater 137.
258. Pathak A, Kumar A, Kumar A, Kumar A (2023) Application of Laser Technology in the
Mechanical and Machine Manufacturing Industry. In: Laser-based Technologies for
Sustainable Manufacturing. CRC Press, pp.107–155.
259. Samimi Gharaie, S., S.M.H.Dabiri, and M.Akbari, Smart shear-thinning hydrogels as inject-
able drug delivery systems. Polymers, 2018. 10(12): p.1317.
260. Naveena, N., etal., Biomimetic composites and stem cells interaction for bone and cartilage
tissue regeneration. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2012. 22(12): p.5239–5253.
261. Gao, G., etal., 3D printing of pharmaceutical application: drug screening and drug delivery.
Pharmaceutics, 2021. 13(9): p.1373.
262. Filippi, M., etal., Integrated Closed-loop Control of Bio-actuation for Proprioceptive Bio-
hybrid Robots. bioRxiv, 2024: p.2024-01.
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263. Malik, A., etal., Bionanomaterials for Sensors, Actuators, Drug Delivery, and Their Medical
Applications, in Bionanomaterials for Biosensors, Drug Delivery, and Medical Applications.
CRC Press. p.252–268.
264. Lucignani, G., Nanoparticles for concurrent multimodality imaging and therapy: the dawn
of new theragnostic synergies. European journal of nuclear medicine and molecular imaging,
2009. 36: p.869–874.
265. Domenico, A., etal., De novo drug design of targeted chemical libraries based on articial
intelligence and pair-based multiobjective optimization. Journal of Chemical Information
and Modeling, 2020. 60(10): p.4582–4593.
266. Saurabh Gupta, Ruchika Saini, Abhishek Kumar, Prateek Shrivastava, (2020) Performance
Analysis of Gudgeon Pin of Various Cross Sections by FEM. Int J Recent Technol Eng
8:4569–4573.
267. Shrivastava Prateek SR, Kumar A, others (2020) Investigation of Torsional Rod to Minimize
Vibration in Automobile using ANSYS.In: 2020 1st International Conference on Innovative
Research in Applied Science, Engineering and Technology (IRASET). pp.1–6.
268. Singh M, Kumar A, Khan AR (2020) Capillary as a liquid diode. Phys Rev Fluids 5:102101.
269. Singh RK, Kumar A, Kant R, Gupta A, Suresh E, Bhattacharya S (2014b) Design and fabrication of 3-dimensional helical structures in polydimethylsiloxane for ow control applications. Microsyst Technol 20:101–111.
270. Subramanian Y, Gajendiran J, Veena R, Azad AK, Sabarish VCB, Muhammed Ali SA, Kumar
A, Gubendiran RK (2023) Structural, Photoabsorption and Photocatalytic Characteristics of
BiFeO3-WO3 Nanocomposites: An Attempt to Validate the Experimental Data Through
SVM-Based Articial Intelligence (AI). J Electron Mater 1–11.
271. Vats P, Gajrani KK, Kumar A (2023) Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing. In: Laser-based
Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing. CRC Press, pp.67–83.
311

Chapter 11
Biological Smart Biomaterials: Materials
forBiomedical Applications
SaswatChowdhury , NipunJain , YusufOlatunjiWaidi ,
RanjitBarua , SamirDas , ArbindPrasad , andSudiptoDatta
Abstract In the Biomedical engineering domain, the use of smart biomaterials has
a huge impact. These biomaterials own different features that respond to the surrounding changes, allowing them to be used in various biomedical therapeutic applications. They are sensitive to external stimulations like temperature, light, pH,
magnetic and electric elds, etc. Also, these materials are biocompatible, biodegradable, and less expensive. The development, analysis, and synthesis of these materials have shown notable progress in biomedical applications in the past few decades.
These SMART materials are used to develop wound healing scaffolds, drug delivery
systems, and implants. SMART materials have huge opportunities for changing biological applications. In this book chapter, we will briey discuss various SMART
materials, their advancement in the biomedical engineering domain, applications of
these materials with 3D and 4D bioprinting, the challenges, and prospects.
Saswat Chowdhury, Nipun Jain and Yusuf Olatunji Waidi contributed equally with all other
contributors.
S. Chowdhury
Department of Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
e-mail: saswatc@iisc.ac.in
N. Jain · Y. O. Waidi · S. Datta (*)
Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
e-mail: nipunjain@iisc.ac.in; yusufwaidi@iisc.ac.in
R. Barua
Centre for Healthcare Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and
Technology, Howrah, West Bengal, India
S. Das
Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Lab, School of Medical Science and Technology Indian
Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
A. Prasad
Mechanical Engineering Department, Katihar Engineering College (Under Department of
Science, Technology and Technical Education, Government of Bihar), Katihar, Bihar, India
A. Kumar et al. (eds.), Applications of Biotribology in Biomedical Systems,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58327-8_11
313© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

314
S. Chowdhury et al.
Keywords Smart biomaterials · 3D bioprinting · 4D printing · Shape memory
alloy · Polymers · Tissue engineering
11.1 Introduction
Responding to stimulation is a fundamental process in the scientic world.
According to nature’s lessons, researchers have created valuable substances responsive to external response change. These retaliations emerge as alterations to shape,
surface properties, solubility, the creation of a complicated structure, a sol-gel transition, and so on. The adjective “Smart” means the substances are able to notice
uctuations in surroundings and later act upon these modications in a predened
fashion [1]. Smart materials can refer to materials that can change their shape, function, or any other property in a controlled fashion upon external stimulation externally. In the biological context, the smart material in question also needs to be
biocompatible, i.e., it should not elicit any unwanted response from the tissue.
Considering that the biological systems are dynamic in nature, the biomaterials
must also be able to modify their properties based on the stimulus, externally
imposed, or changes in the surrounding milieu. The stimulus can range from physical, such as heat, magnetic eld, light, electrical, and mechanical strain, to chemical, such as pH, water, and analyte concentration. The change in the property can
either be reversible, i.e., the material can recover to its initial state upon withdrawal
of the external stimulus, or irreversible, which means the material is permanently
locked in the changed state. The most widely used class of smart substances are
shape-memory alloys and polymers [2]. Apart from these, there are other special
classes of smart materials, such as self-healing polymers, water-responsive shapechanging hydrogels, shape-changing composites, piezoelectric materials, etc.
The transitions across different phases of the smart material demonstrate various
characteristics due to changes in temperature or loading conditions. The shape
memory effect describes how the structures return to their predened shapes when
heated. Superelasticity describes the phenomena in which the structures undertake
considerable deformations but still restore their shape following unloading [3]. The
latest developments in stimuli-responsive design have opened the door to new biomedical uses. Stimuli-responsive alterations allow for their innovative uses in delivering medicines, biological engineering, and biomimetic actuators. This chapter
deals with different classes of smart materials, their principles of change in property, stimulation, the interaction of the material with stimulus, the role of modeling
in property change, and nally, the biological applications of these smart materials.
The focus is restricted to a brief review of the technology, material requirements,
classication of smart materials, and application.

11 Biological Smart Biomaterials: Materials forBiomedical Applications
315
11.2 Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)
The fascinating journey of shape-memory alloys (SMA) started in 1932 with Chang
and Read’s discovery of a reversible phase transformation in AuCd. However, practical applications only took off in 1962 when Buechler etal. stumbled upon the
shape memory effect in NiTi (Nitinol) at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory. Nitinol
quickly rose to prominence due to its superior thermomechanical properties and
superelasticity compared to other SMAs. At its core, the magic of SMAs lies in their
ability to exist in two distinct phases: austenite at high temperatures with a cubic
structure and martensite at lower temperatures, which can adopt various asymmetric
parallelogram structures (up to 24 variations). SMA exhibits fascinating properties
like shape memory and superelasticity, triggered by temperature or stress-induced
phase transformations between two distinct crystal structures: austenite and martensite. The shape memory effect emerges when a deformed SMA, cooled to stabilize the martensitic phase, is reheated. This triggers a transformation to the austenite
phase, restoring the material to its original “memory” shape. In contrast, superelasticity arises when an austenitic SMA is subjected to stress. This stress induces a
detwinning mechanism within the martensitic phase, where different martensite
variants transform into a single variant that maximizes elongation. Notably, the
twinned martensitic structure is weaker due to its parallelogram arrangement, allowing signicant deformation. Conversely, the austenitic phase exhibits greater stress
resistance with its single possible orientation.
SMA are versatile metals with unique properties like shape memory, superelasticity, and damping. These properties make them valuable in diverse elds [4], from
aerospace (tougher composites) [5] to medicine (smart stents). SMAs can function
as memory elements, actuators, or superelastic materials, expanding their application potential [6]. SMA shines in the biomedical world due to their biocompatibility,
preventing infections and seamlessly integrating with the body. Their impressive
mechanical properties make them ideal for implants in orthopedics and orthodontics
[7]. Simon lter, a pioneering SMA device, lters blood clots and has inspired
numerous next-generation devices like stents, cava lters, and even articial heart
activators. These “smart” materials, with their ability to deform and regain shape on
cue, these “smart” materials offer minimally invasive alternatives to traditional surgeries, saving lives and revolutionizing healthcare [8]. SMAs bone plates speed
healing with temperature-activated compression, which is ideal for facial bones and
the spine [9]. They offer a tight t, stable pressure, and precise vertebral positioning,
perfect for areas where casts are impractical; even physiotherapy benets from their
controlled stress, aiding muscle recovery [10]. NiTi alloys revolutionized orthodontics (1915) with their unique “memory” and gentle forces. These smart wires, stable
in the mouth, gradually guide teeth into alignment, making treatment more comfortable and efcient. They also nd use in implants, ensuring better xation thanks to
the shape memory effect. Beyond dentistry, shape memory polyurethanes with
phase-separated structures hold promise for various applications [11]. Additionally,
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