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3 Relationships Between Traditional
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Persian/Iranian Medicine and Other
Traditional Medical Systems
Hartwig Schulz*
Consulting and Project Management for Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, Stahnsdorf, Germany
Abstract
is chapter gives a detailed overview of the history of traditional Arab and Persian medical systems
and their interactions with Ayurveda in India, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), and Western trad
itional medicine (the so-called ”monastic medicine”) that interacted with or emerged from Islamic
medicine in the Middle Ages. e rst records of medicinal plants date back more than 5000 years to
the time of the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia, who prepared lists with various plant species.
Furthermore, ancient Chinese and Egyptian papyrus writings dating back to 3000 also reveal the
medicinal use of plants at that time. e “Ebers Papyrus” from ancient Egypt, for example, provides
extensive information on more than 850 herbal medicines. Manuscripts of Traditional Persian/Iranian Medicine (TPM/TIM), written by Persian scholars especially in the Middle Ages, not only represent
a treasure of traditional medical and pharmaceutical knowledge, but also provide a collection of ingenious studies regarding the use of medicinal plants. In present days, herbal medicines are experiencing a
renaissance and are extensively used for various therapeutic purposes. In this context, this chapter
contains numerous references to various ethnobotanical studies and also gives a general overview of
the intercultural exchange of traditional medical systems and the resulting gain in experiential knowledge about the individual medicinal plants. Today, this traditional medical knowledge represents an
important source of inspiration for the development of new ecient phytopharmaceutical drugs and
new therapeutic strategies. Although traditional medicine continues to play an important role in Iran
today, much of this traditional knowledge has not been adequately addressed by scientic research.
erefore, it seems advisable to verify the eectiveness of traditional treatments using the new scientic tools available today, especially in cases where there is little or no supporting data in the literature.
-
Since ancient times, plants have been one of
the first and most available resources usable
for treating illnesses. There has always been
a close relationship between man and plants,
and the medicinal effects of plants and their
*Email: hs.consulting.map@t-online.de
Introduction
© CAB International 2023. Medicinal Plants Used in Traditional Persian Medicine
uses have been known more or less by everybody (UNESCO, 1996). In 2002, the World
Health Organization (WHO) provided the
following detailed description of the term
“Traditional Medicine”: “Traditional medicine (TM) is a comprehensive term used to
refer both to TM systems such as Traditional
(eds. H. Schulz, Seyed Ahmad Emami and Farsad Nadjafi)
DOI: 10.1079/9781800621671.0003 136
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Chinese Medicine, Indian Ayurveda, Islamic
Traditional Medicine, and to various forms
of indigenous medicine” (WHO, 2002) (Fig. 3.1).
Traditional medicine includes medication therapies if they involve the application
of herbal medicines, animal parts, and/or
minerals; and non-medication therapies if
they are carried out primarily without the
use of medication, as in the case of acupuncture, manual therapies, and spiritual therapies
(WHO, 1978, 2002).
In general, traditional medicine offers
the enormous advantage that it is considered
part of the culture and therefore cultural
problems that could affect the application of
the medicine can usually be avoided. Moreover, it can be used in conjunction with conventional medicine and in this way often
increase the healing success. The development and promotion of Traditional Medicine could also be seen as respecting and
honoring the respective culture and heritage
of people around the world. Thus, the extensive medical/pharmaceutical knowledge collected in ancient Persia is still successfully
used today for the diagnosis, prevention,
and therapy of various diseases. In this context, Traditional Persian/Iranian Medicine
(TPM/TIM) is based exclusively on practical
experience and observations that have been
passed down from generation to generation.
Due to negligence, TPM/TIM has had a
weak presence in the world for a long time.
However, in recent years, a variety of research activities and faculty centers have
created awareness and a suitable platform to
introduce and promote Persian medicine to
the world.
Today, numerous scientific articles are
published in international journals dealing
with evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine, as well as basic concepts
and historical aspects of TPM/TIM (Moeini
and Gorji, 2016; Naghizadeh etal., 2020).
Pre-Islamic Period (c.8000 BC–6th
Century AD)
The roots of TPM/TIM go back more than
8000 years and today it is considered a
branch, if not the root, of the so-called
“Arabic Unani Medicine or Islamic Traditional
Medicine (ITM)” (Mosaddegh and Naghibi,
2002). The earliest records describing the
use of medicinal plants come from the Assyrians-Babylonians and the Egyptians,
which developed in parallel. The clay tablets
of the Sumerians already list hundreds of
different medicinal plants such as myrrh
(Commiphora myrrha) and opium (Papaver
somniferum) (Sumner, 2000). The individual
medical use of many plants is also described
in more detail as early as 3000 in the papyrus writings that have been handed down
Fig. 3.1. Development of medical systems from antiquity to present days.
Chinese/Kampo/
Ayurveda medicine
(from c.5000
BC)
Modern evidence-based
medicine
(
from 20th century AD)
Monastic medicine
(from 11th century
Medieval Islamic medicine
(7–10th century
Pre-Islamic and Greco-Arab
medicine
(c.8000 BC–6th century AD)
AD)
AD)
138 Hartwig Schulz
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from China and Egypt. One of the oldest and
most important collections of these documents
represent the book Papyrus Ebers (c.1550 ),
which contains information how to use more
than 850 herbal plants such as garlic (Allium
sativum), juniper (Juniperus communis), cannabis (Cannabis sativa), caraway (Carum carvi),
coriander (Coriandrum sativum), fennel (Foe-
niculum vulgare), anise (Pimpinella anisum), dill
(Anethum graveolens), peppermint (Mentha ×
piperita), and mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) (Sumner, 2000; Bryan, 2021) in order to
treat various diseases (Fig. 3.2).
Sumac (Rhus coriaria) was also exten-
sively used in folk medicine during ancient
times. Even today, this species is still collected and processed in mountain regions of
Iran. The red fruits of sumac have a characteristic sour-salty taste, which makes them
also a popular spice in the food industry in
addition to their use as a herbal drug (AbdulJalil, 2020).
The English medical historian Cyril Elgood even assumes that TPM/TIM was already more advanced than the Assyrian one
at that time and it can certainly also be assumed that several elements of this medical
system were adopted by the Greeks (Elgood,
1979, 1992). Taking into account the definitions given by the WHO, Persian medicine
Fig. 3.2. Days of the Papyrus Ebers (1500 BC). The painting shows a head pharmacist dictating to a
scribe and supervising the compounding of medicines in a temple drug room. (Artist: Robert A. Thom
(1915–1979). Source: National Library of Medicine, Rockville Pike, Bethesda. Public Domain, https://
collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-101651536-img.)
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can be divided into a written part and another one consisting of orally transmitted,
verbal traditional medicine (Naseri and
Ardakani, 2004). The ancient manuscripts
of Egyptian medicine from the middle of the
2nd millennium initially refer mainly to
various symptoms and diagnoses, and, in
this context, describe different treatment
approaches in which mineral, herbal, and
animal substances were used. Mesopotamian medicine, which is also documented by
cuneiform texts on clay tablets, developed in
parallel with Egyptian medicine. Surgical
procedures as well as the treatment of bone
fractures have also been proven to have been
performed during this time. The Achaemenian kings of the Persian Empire in the 6th
and 5th centuries also employed physicians from Egypt at their courts.
It must be emphasized, however, that
the Greek medicine of the 5th century
has some parallels to Mesopotamian medicine in terms of content, which can be explained by the cultural and economic
exchange between the Orient and the Mediterranean region that already existed at that
time. It can therefore be assumed that the
medicine attributed to the Greek philosopher “Hippocrates of the island of Kos” was
already influenced by elements of Mesopotamian culture. Evidence shows that even
before the establishment of the famous
medical schools of ancient Greece (Hippocrates, Homer, Asclepius) in the 5th to 6th
century , at Cnidos in Asia Minor and on
the nearby Aegean Island of Kos, different
medical practices were already commonly
applied in Mesopotamia, India, and Iran
(Najmabadi, 2001). However, it is also undisputed that the texts in Hippocrates’
handbook De medicina (Diller, 2021), translated and written down by Aulus Cornelius
Celsus at that time (Spencer, 1989), set a
new standard for medical research and education until modern times. It was only with
the emergence of scientific medicine in the
19th century that Hippocratic medicine fell
more and more into the background. However, the Hippocratic Oath survived into the
20th century and was only replaced in 1948
by the World Medical Association with the
Geneva Declaration, to which many doctors
worldwide still feel committed today. In connection with traditional horticulture and
the history of medicine in the 8th century
, the Chaldean Marduk-apla-iddina II,
who came from the Bit Yakin tribe, is also
worth mentioning. At that time, the plants
of the royal medicinal herb garden were
listed on a clay tablet. From these cuneiform
records it could later be learned, for example,
that purslane (Portulaca oleracea) was already
important as a remedy in ancient times
(Jastrow, 1914). Marduk-apla-iddina II, who
took advantage of the political unrest in the
Assyrian Empire to conquer Babylonia in
721 , was first mentioned historically
in 729 .
In ancient Persia, a vast area with great
differences in climate and vegetation, the inhabitants were familiar with various medicinal plants from very early on. Several
medicinal herbs such as basil (Basilicum ten-
uiflorum), chicory (Cichorium intybus), violet
(Viola spp.), and peppermint (M. × piperita)
are already mentioned in the Avesta, the
holy book of the Zoroastrian religion. Although the Avesta is one of the oldest religious documents of mankind, it only became
known in Europe through the French Orientalist Abraham Anquetil-Dupperon, who
traveled to the East Indies in 1755 to obtain a copy of the Avesta from the Parsi
priests there. In addition, the names of 30
sacred plants are mentioned in the Bunda-
hishn (Azizi, 2008; Azizi etal., 2008). In ancient (pre-Islamic) Iran, many medicinal
plants such as barberry (Berberis integerri-
ma), saffron (Crocus sativus), violet (Viola od-
orata), white water-lily (Nymphaea alba),
narcissus (Narcissus tazetta), myrtle (Myrtus
communis), damask rose (Rosa × damascena),
citron (Citrus medica), pepper (Piper nigrum),
agarwood (Aquilaria agallocha), haoma (Eph-
edra spp.), pomegranate (Punica granatum),
hemp (Cannabis sativa), olive (Olea euro-
paea), Syrian rue (Peganum harmala), black
mustard (Brassica nigra), asafoetida (Ferula
assa-foetida), gum tragacanth plant (Astragalus tragacantha), true indigo (Indigofera
tinctoria), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), frank-
incense (Boswellia sacra), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), and labdanum (Cistus
ladanifer) were used; and the aromatherapy
140 Hartwig Schulz
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with aromatic drugs such as camphor (Cinnamomum camphora), sandalwood (Santalum
album), and Arabian balsam (Commiphora
gileadensis) was also practiced. Some min-
erals such as alum (K
sulfur, lapis (lapis lazuli), and nushadir salt
SO 4·Al 2(SO 4) 3 ·24H 2 O),
2
(ammonium chloride) are among the drugs
that were used in ancient Iranian medicine
(Emami etal., 2017).
As part of the massive military expansion, the Islamized Arabs conquered Egypt,
North Africa, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia by the middle of the 7th century . At the same time, at the beginning
of the 9th century , some philosophical
writings (written for example by Aristotle
and Plato) as well as various scientific and
medical Greek literature were translated
into Arabic on a large scale. This allowed the
cultural policy of the Abbasids to follow the
example of the pre-Islamic Persian dynasty
of the Sasanids ( 226–642). Greek manuscripts had been very popular at that time
and occasionally even reached Baghdad as a
gift from a Byzantine emperor. The translation of the mentioned books is due to the
valuable and continuous efforts of some
famous translators such as John Grammaticus, Aaron Alexandrian, Sergius of Rechina,
Issa ibn Sahar Boxt, Sabet ibn Qorrah, Qusta
ibn Luqa of Heliopolis, Sahl ibn Shapur,
Shapur ibn Sahl, Ibn Serapion, al-Kendy, and
members of some families such as the Boxtishu (the servant of Christ), Massarjuyah,
Hunayn, Karkhy, Massuyah, and Sinan families (Tayarani-Najaran etal., 2014). Islamic
polymaths and physicians such as Rhazes
( 850–923) and Avicenna ( 980–1037)
adopted the writings of Hippocratic–Galian
medicine that had become known to them in
this way and systematically developed them
further. Later, in the High Middle Ages,
their works were translated into Latin.
Medicinal herbs are among the most
important natural resources that may have a
direct positive impact on people’s health.
Even today, many of the medicines we use
every day are derived directly or indirectly
from medical herbs. The great importance of
plant medicine was already recognized in antiquity; for example, the Egyptians had used
the healing power of certain herbs since the
16th century . But the Israelites, too, used
medicinal plants since ancient times and in
India the most important and authentic
classical work of Ayurveda (Charaka-Samhita)
is originally written in Sanskrit. China’s oldest pharmacopoeia is attributed to one of its
emperors named “Shinon” who lived around
2800 . From the 8th to 10th centuries ,
the famous Iranian scientists Avicenna and
Rhazes (Razi) were leaders in this field of
knowledge (Mah Van, 2002).
The culmination of Avicenna’s philosophical work is seen in his writing Kitāb al-
Shifā (Book of Healing), in which he dealt
intensively with the teachings of Aristotle.
In addition, he summarized the state of
knowledge of Islamic medicine at that time
in his al-Qānūn fī al-Tibb (Canon of Medicine).
In this context it was particularly important
for him to dedicate a concrete and independent place to medicine within the canon of
the other sciences.
In Western countries, advances in this
science date back to the Early Middle Ages
and are still pursued today by scholars such as
Constantine, Epitome Matthiol, and Dragendorff, and others (Mozaffarian, 1996; Zargari,
2014). In Iran, the most comprehensive
study in this case was conducted by Ali
Zargari and the result was published in five
volumes (Jouri and Mahdavi, 2010). With
regard to the different climatic conditions
and soil quality, Iran offers optimal conditions for a high biodiversity of numerous
different medicinal plant species, which
often occur only in this country and can be
considered endemic.
With an extent of 1,648,000 km
2
, Iran
has a widely varied climate; it is a habitat for
very different plant species. Nearly 190 families of vascular plants are found in this
country, containing 8500–9500 species, the
endemic plants being relatively numerous.
More details can be taken from the book The
Endemic Phanerogams of the Flora of Iran,
where 2324 species are mentioned, all of
which belonging to Iranian Phanerogams
(Emami and Aghazari, 2011).
In the Department of Natural Resources
of Fars Province alone, more than 1600 medicinal plant species are found, of which
more than 100 species are cultivated on an
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area of 600 ha. With an area of 133,000 km2,
this province in Iran covers about 8.1% of
the total area of the country.
The long-standing use of medicinal
plants provides a valuable database regarding the safety and efficacy of individual
plant species. Traditional Persian Medicine
(TPM) has a solid theoretical basis, which is
also supported by numerous evidences of
clinical efficacy. Accordingly, the chance of
being able to identify individual bioactive
phytopharmaceuticals is comparatively high.
In traditional medicine, there is a particular
focus on medicines with cardiovascular activity, which were already listed by Avicenna
(Abū ʿAlī al-Husayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Al-
Hasan ibn Ali ibn Sīnā), a famous Persian
physician of the 11th century , in his book
entitled The Treatise on Cardiac Drugs dedicated to this special field. Here, Avicenna
mentioned a total of 83 cardioactive drugs
obtained from plant, animal, and mineral
sources and described their therapeutic effects and assumed mechanisms in the treatment of various cardiovascular diseases
(Javadi and Emami, 2015). In recent years,
most of these cardioactive plants proposed
by Avicenna have been the subject of several
pharmacologic and clinical studies (Park
etal., 2011; Seo etal., 2020). Today, it is generally accepted that loss of the sense of smell
leads to a noticeable impairment of the general quality of life. However, only a small
proportion of patients with olfactory loss respond to the currently available medications. Therefore, there are various efforts to
use the long-standing medical knowledge of
TPM in this context as well. Such therapies
were already developed in Avicenna’s time
and it can be assumed that the olfactory
changes or complete loss of the sense of
smell observed in infections with COVID-19
viruses can be adequately treated in the near
future by means of TPM/TIM (Sinaei etal.,
2017). Furthermore, in several cases the
very high cost of synthetic pharmaceutical
products, as well as the need for a sustainable economy, is prompting the industry to
pay more attention to the use of medicinal
plants today (Noorhosseini etal., 2011).
Based on plant species recommended by
Avicenna, for example, a link could be established
between TPM/TIM and relevant modern
pharmacologic data to support the development of new efficient and safe cardiovascularly active drugs (Sobhani et al., 2017).
Interestingly, some of these plant species
showed significant cardiovascular activities
via mechanisms such as calcium antagonism, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition, antiarrhythmic, anticoagulant and
fibrinolytic activities, and reduction of cardiac fibrosis. In this context, phenolic compounds such as luteolin, rosmarinic acid,
salvianolic acid A, cardamonin, cinnamic
acid, punicalagin, punicalin, strictinin A,
granatin B, ellagitannins, and anthocyanins
were particularly responsible for cardioactive activity and are therefore considered to
be promising candidates for the development of new cardiovascular drugs (Sobhani
etal., 2017).
Today, however, more and more the
preservation of this knowledge can no
longer be guaranteed, as the transmission
between generations no longer works as well
as it did in the past (Anyinam, 1995). Yet the
loss of this traditional knowledge in a rapidly changing culture is as irreversible as the
disappearance of plant species themselves
(Joshi and Joshi, 2000). Considerable efforts must therefore be made to document
the medicinal use of the related plant species before these traditional medicinal practices are irreversibly lost (Joshi and Joshi,
2000).
Special attention is therefore paid to
support the research of medicinal plants in
Iran (Jivad etal., 2016; Parsaei etal., 2016;
Rouhi-Boroujeni etal., 2016a). Phytotherapy has a long history in this country, so this
topic has been extensively described in ancient Iranian pharmacopoeias, such as the
works of Avicenna. In addition, numerous
studies have been published showing successful approaches to treat various diseases by
applying Traditional Iranian Medicine (TIM)
(Ibrar etal., 2007; Ahmadipour etal., 2016;
Rouhi-Boroujeni etal., 2016b).
In Iran particularly a high diversity of
species is found in the Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
family and many of these species are also
used in traditional folk medicine. Unfortunately, very often only few clear references
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concerning the ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology of the Labiatae species are
available, and most publications and historic
documents are only available in Persian or
Arabic (Naghibi et al., 2010; Amiri et al.,
2014).
Medieval Islamic Period
(7th–10th Century
AD)
TIM is a holistic and comprehensive medical
school whose origins date back over 12 centuries. In this traditional medicine system,
cancer was already a well-known disease
with many treatment options. Especially,
Razi (Rhazes; 865–925), Ahwazi (Hali
Abbas; 930–994), Avicenna ( 980–
1037), Jorjāni ( 1042–1136), and Aqili
Khorasani (18th century ) were among
the most important doctors of their time
who discussed various forms of cancer and
their treatment in their books. They used
many different types of plants in the treatment of the various tumours. In this context, Zakhireh Khārazmshāhi (The Treasure of
Khārazmshāh) by Seyyed Esma’il Jorjāni (
433–531/ 1041–1136) is known as the
most important Persian medical book of
TIM (Tayarani-Najaran etal., 2014).
Today, more than 80% of the world’s
population apply traditional medicine, especially medicinal plants, to treat the most
common diseases and ailments. Especially
in developing countries and rural areas, the
use of medicinal plants represents an important economical alternative within individual health systems (Alexiades and Sheldon,
1996; Robineau and Soejarto, 1996). In addition, traditional medicine provides a valuable source of knowledge for research and
development of new pharmaceutical products. Therefore, in recent years the use of
ethnobotanical information has become
particularly important in medicinal plant research (Heinrich, 2000). Knowledge about
the use and properties of medicinal plants
was often acquired empirically and passed
on from generation to generation (Lev and
Amar, 2000). From the 9th century onward, under the guidance of the Persians
and Arabs, who at this time were considerably more advanced than the inhabitants of
medieval Europe, medical schools (so-called
“Bimaristans”) emerged in the medieval Islamic world. As admirers of Greco-Roman
culture, the Arabs translated numerous
medical texts into Arabic for further studies
(Castleman, 2001). As early as 600, the
Nestorians (a Christian sect) founded translator centers in Baghdad, Damascus, Antioch, Basra, and Cairo in the Eastern Roman
Empire, Syria, and Persia. The most important achievement of these translators today
is generally considered to be the translation
of Galen’s very extensive writings into
Arabic. On the basis of Galen’s theory of the
four humors, numerous adaptations and independent works were written later, such as
Avicenna’s Canon medicinae (Canon of Medi-
cine), which had a decisive influence on the
development of medicine in the Western
world for centuries (Figs 3.3 and 3.4).
In the dissemination of medical knowledge, however, “cultural interfaces” also
played a very important role again, and again
at a later time. In this context, particular reference should be made to the famous medieval medical school of Salerno (Civitas
Hippocratica) and the scientific languages
used there: Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic.
Mention should be also made here of the
translator “Constantine of Africa” ( 1010–
1087), to whom a collection of textbooks is
attributed that later became known as Articel
-
la describing the central subject areas of
medieval medicine. In addition, the collection
of recipes Antidotarium Nicolai is considered a
very important work that also originated in
Salerno and on which medicinal therapy was
oriented until modern times (Sudhoff, 1930).
The Iberian Peninsula also represented another important interface between “Orient”
and “Occident” in medieval times, as the cultures of Islam and Christianity met there in
close proximity. Of particular importance for
the development of European medicine and
science was the school of translators in Toledo founded by Gerhard of Cremona (
1134–1187), which translated a large number of Arabic writings into Latin.
In addition, the Arabs had access to
various plant raw materials due to their
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Fig. 3.3. Canon of Medicine, first page of the introduction to the first book (Arabic manuscript, 1597).
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avicenna_canon_1597.jpg#/media/File:Avicenna_canon_1597.jpg.)
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org/w/index.php?curid=99757546.)
India. In this way, herbal books, medical
textbooks, and translations of the classics of
antiquity also reached them from both East
and West. It must be emphasized, however,
that Muslim botanists and physicians not
only translated the traditional knowledge of
materia medica, but considerably expanded
it. For example, al-Dinawari described more
than 637 herbal drugs in the 9th century
and Ibn al-Baytār d escribed more than 1400
different plant species in the 13th century,
of which more than 300 were his own
discoveries.
In medieval Islamic literature, in which the
individual plant species are closely associated
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with medicine and agronomy, there are already numerous references to the use of medicinal herbs. Furthermore, these plant
species are described in various philosophical, magical, and geographical contexts (de
Vos, 2013). Especially three medieval
pharmaceutical treatises, written by Yūhannā ibn Māsawayh, had an immense influence on the development of pharmacy in
early modern Europe at that time. Although
these works had achieved great importance,
they are relatively unknown in the history of
pharmacy and medicine, and the exact iden
tity of the author cannot be precisely proven
even today, so that in principle it is also conceivable that the manuscripts were written
under a pseudonym. The only thing that
seems certain is that these treatises can be
clearly assigned to the state of knowledge of
the medieval Islamic world at that time. In
any case, the writings contained numerous
innovations that formed the basis for the
theory and practice of Western pharmacy
for centuries and probably also exerted a
considerable influence on medical science in
Europe (Troupeau, 1995; Cambra, 2001;
Cárcer, 2001).
It has been reported that several plant
species were already used for therapeutic
purposes in the ancient Arab world as well as
in other contemporary and earlier cultures.
By the 10th century, the Oriental Islamic
culture was able to develop a solid knowledge of the effects of medicinal and spice
plants. In particular, on the basis of the two
writings, Kitāb Jawāhir al-tayb al-Mofradah
(Essences of Simple Perfumes, written by Ibn
Māsawayh) and Kitāb al-Adwiyah al-Mofra
-
dah (Simple Drugs, written by Ibn Wāfid),
this knowledge spread in Andalusia (now
Spain) in the 11th century, which is considered the so-called “Golden Age” of Andalusian pharmacology (Cárcer, 2001). Since
the Muslim botanist al-Asma’i ( 740–828)
wrote his famous work Kitāb al-Nabāt wa-’l-
Shajar (Book of Plants and Trees), which be-
came the standard work on Arabic plant
names and botanical terms for later generations of pharmacologists, some efforts
were made to clarify or correct the botanical
terms he used. Unfortunately, different botanical systematics were in use at that time,
ranging from simple alphabetical sorting of
individual plants to subdivisions according
to their respective practical medicinal uses.
However, subdivisions were also found in
“trees, flowers and garden vegetables”, with
the group of trees (including shrubs) and
plants being further subdivided according to
whether or not the fruits or other plant
parts could be used as food (Bolens, 1977).
Some early Islamic works, such as those
of al-Shaybāni, Ibn al-Arabi, al-Bahili, and
Ibn as-Sikkit, have unfortunately been lost,
but their works were extensively cited in
later books by Abu Hanifah al-Dinawari, Ibn
Sidah, and other authors. As a result of the
further spread of Islam and the intensive ex
change of information with Middle Eastern,
Indian, and North African sources, a rich botanical literature thus developed in which
Muslim authors attempted to record the individual significance of medicinal plants and
stepwise develop a botanical systematics
from this knowledge. In this context, the
plant terminology of the older Arabic nomenclature was also gradually expanded
(Bolens, 1977). In the treatises of Jabir ibn
Hayyān, the herbs needed for the produc
tion of medicinal plant extracts were described in more detail, while Abu Ubaid
al-Bakri focused more on the plant and tree
species growing in Andalusia (Nasr, 2003).
Finally, in his book entitled Umdat al-Tabib fi
Mʿarifat al-Nabāt lia-kolle Labib (An Important Botanical Book for Physicians, published
by Mohammad Arabi al-Khattabi in 1995),
Abul Khair al-Ishbili attempted to obtain a
more appropriate classification of medicinal
plants according to their individual genera,
species, and subspecies (Samso etal., 1996).
Muslim botanists at that time already had
an extensive knowledge regarding the cultivation of different plant species and had also
gained initial insights into how different
types of fruit (e.g., different species of the
genus Prunus) could be produced by grafting
on the same tree. In addition, they were already able to carry out first breeding experiments with wild rose species (e.g., Rosa ×
damascena) and almond trees (Prunus dulcis)
occurring in Persia, in order to develop interesting subspecies with new quality characteristics in this way (Durant, 1950). The
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