Век химии (Английский язык для студентов химического профиля). Учебное пособие

CELSIUS VERSUS CENTIGRADE

The Ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures, held in October, 1948, adopted the name “Celsius” for the scale of temperature which had more commonly been called “centigrade”. This action, which had not been proposed in advance of the Conference, arose from a question regarding preferred usage in French, the sole official language of the Conference. The decision might be considered as applying strictly only to that language. In the interest of eventual uniformity of practice the use of “Celsius” appeared desirable, but it was not practicable to impose this term on those who preferred “centigrade”.

In preparation for the General Conference the National Bureau оf Standard submitted a revised text defining the International Temperature Scale to supersede that adopted in 1927. The proposed text was drafted in English and, in accordance with common English practice as well as the official French text adopted in 1927, it used the name “centigrade”. This name was earned over into the French translation prepared for consideration by the Advisory Committee on Thermometry in May, 1948. However, in the printed report of that meeting, the term “centigrade” had, in most cases, been changed to “centesimal”, the term that was used in the French law governing weights and measurements. When it was asked to choose between the two, the International Committee on Weights and the General Conference voted to substitute “Celsius”.

With regard to the merits of the decision it might be remarked that Celsius (abbreviated C) was analogous to the names Kelvin, Fahrenheit. Reaumur, and Rankine, used for other temperature scales, that it had previously been used considerably in some countries, and occasionally in America. It might also be argued that “centigrade” was logically ambiguous, since the absolute Kelvin scale, as well as the centigrade scale has 100 degrees between the ice point and the boiling point of water. On the other hand, the name “centigrade” was thoroughly established in English speaking countries, the need for choosing between that name and “centesimal” arose only in French, and the decision on a term in the official French language of the

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Conference might not be considered as controlling the terms to be used in translating into other tongues.

1. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:

hold a conference, adopt the name, propose an action, uniformity of practice, be practicable, prepare for consideration, advisory committee, with regard to, remark, occasionally, on the other hand, thoroughly, in the English-speaking countries, the need for, translate into, use the term, previously, in accordance with.

2. Give the English equivalents for the following:

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY – THE OLDEST FIELD

OF CHEMISTRY

Analytical chemistry is probably the oldest field in the broad spectrum of the science of chemistry. Many years were required to dispel the lure of alchemy; more were needed to demonstrate the fallacy of the phlogiston theory. However, it was not until the brilliant French chemist Lavoisier (1743-1794) demonstrated, about 1785, by actual experimental methods that combustion was a combination of a substance with oxygen, that he laid the basic groundwork of modem chemistry, and, in a very particular sense, analytical chemistry. Indeed, with considerable justification he can be called the “father” of analytical chemistry because of the great emphasis he placed in all experimental work on quantitative measurement. It is in this very necessary characteristic of the true analytical chemist that he differed

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from Priestley(1733-1804), a discoverer of oxygen. Priestley, a clergyman forced to flee from Birmingham, England, to America because of his unorthodox political and religious views, was more of a philosopher than a scientist.

The first problem to engage the interest of most chemists was to determine as exactly as possible the composition of the earth. Greater emphasis was perhaps placed on chemistry than physics at this stage in the evolution of the natural sciences - yet, the contributions of such scientists as Avogadro, Boyle, and Charles all had a direct bearing and, therefore, great usefulness in analysis. Avogadro’s law, for example, is extremely important in the chemistry of gases, because it docs serve as a basis for relating weight to volume. Indeed, it is not an overstatement to say that during the 18th and most of the 19th century the chemistry that did exist was largely analytical chemistry. The pinnacle of ambition of most chemists at that time was to be a highly successful analyst. Any study of chemical literature of this period shows a preponderance of titles related to analytical chemistry.

It was in the latter half of the 19th century that the so-callcd “industrial revolution’’ took place. Many beginnings (modest at first) were made in the industrial manufacture of numerous items consumed in the household which were traditionally produced in the home or not at all. The raw materials in such manufacturing operations consisted chiefly of chemicals.

The pressing and dyeing of textiles, the production of glass, leather, soap - these are merely four examples (many others could be quoted) of operations that moved slowly out of the home and into the factory. Slowly, but surely, this trend built up a demand for modest changes for a limited number of chemicals. Except for the natural dyes and tanning extracts, most of the industrial chemicals produced in this area were inorganic in nature, principally alkalies, mineral acids, etc.

1. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:

the phlogiston theory, demonstrate the fallacy of a theory, in a very particular sense, indeed, with justification, place emphasis on, because of one's views, be more of a scientist than, in the evolution of the natural sciences, the so-called “industrial revolution", raw

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materials, the production of glass, quote an example, slowly but surely, modest changes, be inorganic in nature.

2. Give the English equivalents for the following:

аналитическая химия, требовать, блестящий химик, современная химия, называть отцом химии, экспериментальная работа, истинный химик, отличаться от, быть вынужденным, как можно точнее, состав вещества, на этой стадии, вклад ученых, быть чрезвычайно важным, служить основой, не будет преувеличением сказать, в то время, во второй половинеXIX века, быть скромным, промышленное производство, состоять из, за исключением природных красителей.

1.Read and translate the text. Complete the sentences with the following phrases:

1.А) if people use good will and make considerable investments for that purpose.

2.B) are slowly but surely changing the global climate and water balance.

3.C) the greater the ecological problems are becoming.

4.D) necessary measures to protect the environment

5.E) especially in territories where rivers cross several countries

6.F) imperative today and in the near future.

ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION MUST BE GLOBAL

That the problem of pollution and ecology has become the most important one for mankind is evident to all. The more civilization is developing, 1…………. .Air and water pollution by industry is now reaching tremendous proportions. In our era it is changing from a national to international problem, 2………………. . The seas and oceans are also becoming seriously polluted. A similar situation is

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developing in the atmosphere. It is known that many cities throughout the world suffer from air pollution.

However, our scientific knowledge and technological advancement make it possible to eliminate it 3………………… . The development of natural resources on a global scale is already possible from a scientific and technical standpoint (точка зрения). Large-scale experimental work in this area is successfully being carried out.

At present scientists in industrially developed countries are working on the theory of interaction of all the atmospheric and oceanic global processes that determine the climate and weather of the world. Increasing growth of population, industrialization and the use of resources 4……………. .This can be described as a great experiment, one that may bring about changes in the environment more serious than ever before.

The essential feature in the environment protection is that many problems can be solved only on the level of world community.

Therefore, the planning of protection against pollution by human society as a whole is 5……………….. . It is necessary to develop an international program to study data on land, forest, atmospheric and oceanic resources, both renewable and non-renewable. It is the joint efforts of many scientists and special public organizations that can deal with the problem and take 6………………. .

It is still a big job and much remains to be done (еще многое предстоит сделать). However, scientists are confident that planned actions of all countries can eliminate pollution and achieve successes in purifying air, water and soil and in safeguarding natural resources. At the same time one must realize that social and political circumstances may stand in the way of further progress in this

2. Complete the following sentences using some active words and word combinations:

Polluted, an international program, countries, achieve, circumstances, problems, joint, proportions, pollution, measures, population, resources, protection, investment, work.

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1.Ecological……………………….

2.Air and water………………….

3.Tremendous…………………..

4.Seas and rivers are becoming…………….

5.Considerable……………………….

6.Large-scale environmental………………

7.Developed………………….

8.The use of…………………

9.Increasing growth of………………

10.Environment……………………

11.To develop……………………

12.……….. efforts

13.To take necessary………….

14.……………..success

15.social and political……………

3.Match the English words in A with their English definitions in B and Russian definitions in C:

A tremendous advancement eliminate investments determine imperative essential data

purify safeguard

B

1. to protect something or someone from being harmed or having problems.

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2.completely necessary, most basic and typical,

3.progress,

4.extremely great, important or strong,

5.officially decide something or to discover it by examining evidence,

6.to get rid of something that is not wanted or needed,

7.to make something clean by removing dirty or harmful substances from it,

8.the amount of time, energy, or emotion needed in order to make something successful,

9.extremely important and urgent,

10.facts or information used for making calculations or

decisions.

C

a)настоятельный, срочный, обязательный; безоговорочный, категорический;

b)устранять, исключать; ликвидировать;

c)потрясающий, чрезвычайный, огромный, ужасный;

d)существенный, неотъемлемый;

e)очищать;

f)продвижение, повышение; прогресс;

g)инвестирование, вложение;

h)гарантия, защитная мера; предохранять, гарантировать;

i)устанавливать, определять, решать;

j)данные, факты, сведения, информация.

5.Answer the questions:

1.What is this text about?

2.What is ecology?

3.How does water (air) become polluted?

4.Why is the problem of water pollution becoming a global problem?

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Appendix 1

Список выражений, рекомендуемых для работы с текстом или статьей.

1.The text

is about …

is devoted to … deals with … dwells upon… touches upon …

presents some results … concerns…

2.The aim (purpose, object) of the text is to give some information about … to determine …

to compare two methods … to present some data about … to describe an element …

3.The text is divided into 5 parts (paragraphs).

The first part deals with …

the second part is about the discovery of an element … the third part touches upon the physical properties … the fourth part describes the chemical properties …

the fifth part gives some information about the application…

4.In conclusion the text (the author) says that … / it should be noted that…

5.To my mind (I found that), the text is interesting (informative, important, of great value), because ….

I've got some facts about …

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Список выражений, рекомендуемых для монологического высказывания.

It is described in short (in detail) – описывается кратко

(подробно)

it is shown – показано

it is dealt with – рассматривается

it is examined (investigated) – исследуется it is analyzed – анализируется

Much attention is paid to … – обращается большое внимание

на …

Data are given about … – приводятся данные о … Conclusions are drawn (made) – делаются выводы Recommendations are given – даны рекомендации

Лексика необходимая для ведения беседы по тексту, статье.

Начало беседы:

I think (see) – я думаю First of all – во-первых

The fact is that – дело в том, что

As far as I know – насколько я знаю

Look here! – Послушайте!

Конец беседы:

In conclusion – в заключение That's all – это все Summarizing – суммируя On the whole – в целом

Точка зрения или мнение:

It's my opinion that … – по-моему …

I think (believe, suppose, hope) that … – я думаю (верю,

полагаю, надеюсь), что …

To my mind – по-моему

I want to press the point – я хочу подчеркнуть факт …

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Обсуждение:

I've got some questions – у меня несколько вопросов

I would like to ask you about – я хотел бы спросить вас о … Will you say a few words about – не скажете ли несколько

слов о …

I wonder – мне интересно знать

I should mention (emphasize, press the point) – я должен упомянуть (подчеркнуть) …

I'd like to add a few words … – я хотел бы добавить несколько слов о …

Согласие:

I agree that – я согласен

I think so – я думаю также

That's right – верно

How right you are! – Вы абсолютно правы.

Несогласие:

I cannot agree with you! – Я не могу согласиться. I'm afraid you are mistaken – боюсь, вы ошибаетесь It's a pity, but … – жаль, но …

Незнание фактов:

Sorry, I don't know – Простите, я не знаю.

I'm afraid, I've no idea – Боюсь, что не имею представления об этом.

Сокращения, принятые в английской литературе.

at. – atomic – атомный

b.p. – boiling point – точка кипения

C. – Centigrade – температурная шкала Цельсия c.c. – cubic centimetre – см3

deg. – degree – градус

e.g. – for example – например etc – so on – и так далее

F – Fahrenheit – шкала Фаренгейта

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