2.Water may be used to produce power.

3.Hydraulic structures are not massive as compared with bridges.

4.For the construction of hydro-projects we use all conventional building materials.

5.Hydrotechnics is not connected with hydrology.

X. Какое из утверждений не соответствует тематике текста?

1.All hydro-engineering projects are divided into river, pond and sea projects.

2.The science about the use of water resources for different purposes is called hydrotechnics.

3.Economic models fall into two categories: microeconomic and macroeconomic.

4.In the past an engineer would usually specialize in one particular aspect of water quality control.

5.Headwater constructions include channels, tunnels, and headrace water supply systems.

DAMS

The first hydraulic engineering project was lost in the mist of the pre-historic time. The vital importance of water to human life justifies the supposition that some ancient man conceived the idea of diversion of the stream flow from natural channel to an artificial one in order to convey water to some point where it was needed for crops or human.

The earliest large scale drainage and irrigation works were built in Egypt about 3200 B.C. These works were followed by many varied projects in the Mediterranean and Near East area, including dams, canals, aqueducts, and sewer systems. Some 381 miles of aquiducts were constructed to bring water to the city of Rome. The first dam, for which there are reliable records, was built on the Nile River before 4000 B.C. It was used to divert the Nile and provide a site for the ancient city of Memphis. This dam is no longer in existence. The oldest dam still in use is the Almansa Dam in Spain which was constructed

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in the sixteenth century. An irrigation project in Sichuan Province in China, dating from 850 B.C. is also still in use.

These early works were not designed and built by engineers in the modern sense of the world. The ancient builders employed amazing intuitive judgement in planning and executing their works.

The first efforts at organized engineering knowledge were made with the foundation in 1760 of the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees in Paris.

With the passage of time, the materials and methods of construction have been improved, making it possible the erection of large structures.

Dams serve two general purposes, namely, storage and diver-

sion.

Storage dams are built for the purpose of forming impounding or distributing reservoirs. Diversion dams are used to raise the level of the water surface of streams to a height sufficient to supply the available head, necessary for gravity transportation of water, to divert water into a pump intake structure, or to provide a suitable sump for a pumping station.

Classification of dams is made according to the design of the structure and the building materials used.

According to the structural design all dams may be divided into following types: gravity, arch, and buttress. And according to the building materials they are classified as follows: earth-fill, rock-fill, timber, and masonry including stone, plain concrete or reinforced concrete.

TEST TO THE TEXT “DAMS”

I. Соотнесите следующие слова с их объяснением:

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II. Подберите по смыслу слова к следующим предложениям:

1. The first dam was built in ...

a. Spain b. Egypt c. China d. Paris e. Rome

2. These early works were not ... by engineers in the modern sense of the word.

4. Classification of dams is made according to the ... of the structure.

a. nature b. effect c. design d. knowledge e. drainage

5. Storage dams are built for the purpose of forming impounding

or distributing ...

a. reservoirs b. sites c. existence d. projects e. importance

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III. Соотнесите глагол с нужным существительным (по тексту):

IV. Соотнесите английский вариант с русским:

1. The first dam was used to divert the river and provide a site for the city.

a. Первая плотина использовалась для того, чтобы не отводить реку на участке земли, отведѐнном для города.

b. Первая плотина была использована для отведения реки и предоставления участка для города.

2. Dams serve two general purposes, namely, storage and diversion.

a. Плотины служат двум целям: снабжению и распределению.

b. Плотины служат двум общим целям, а именно, хранению и отведению.

3. This dam is no longer in existence.

a. Эта плотина длиннее сама по себе. b. Эта плотина больше не существует.

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V. Укажите предложения, в которых глагол to be является вспомогательным для образования страдательного залога:

1.The first hydraulic engineering project was lost in the mist of the pre-historic time.

2.The earliest large-scale drainage and irrigation works were built in Egypt about 3200 B.C.

3.The aqueducts were to bring water to the city of Rome.

4.The first dams were on the Nile River before 4000 B.C.

5.According to the structural design all dams may be divided into the following types: gravity, arch and buttress.

VI. Определите, чем является подчѐркнутое слово:

1.The oldest Almansa Dam in Spain was constructed in the sixteenth century.

a. Participle I b. Participle II

c. Verb in the Past Simple Tense (Active)

2.Storage dams are built for the purpose of forming different reservoirs

a. Verbal Noun b. Participle I c. Gerund

3.These early works were not designed by engineers.

a.Participle II

b.Verb in the Past Simple Tense (Active)

c.Gerund

4. The ancient builders employed intuitive judgement in executing their works.

a.Verbal Noun

b.Verb in the Past Simple Tense (Active)

c.Participle II

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5. It was used to divert the river and provide a site for the ancient city.

a.Participle

b.Gerund

c.Infinitive

VII. Завершите предложения:

VIII. Выберите правильные ответы на следующие вопросы:

1.What part does water still play in the economy of the country? a. amazing

b. negligible

c. very important

2.Have the materials and methods of construction been improved making it possible the erection of large structures?

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a.Yes, they have been improved.

b.No, they have not.

c.They are not.

3.Is an irrigation project in China, dating from 850 B.C. also still in use?

a. Certainly, not. b. Yes, it is.

c. No it is not.

4.What purposes do dams serve?

a.Dams serve two main purposes: storage and diversion.

b.Dams serve the purpose of storing building materials.

c.Dams serve the purpose of creating monuments of culture.

5. How is classification of dams made?

a.According to the design of the structures and the building materials used.

b.According to the location of dams.

c.According to the efforts of engineers.

IX. Какое из утверждений является верным?

1.Classification of dams is made according to its appearance.

2.All dams may be built in stone.

3.The ancient builders employed an intuitive judgement in planning their works.

4.According to the building materials all dams are classified as follows: earth-fill, rock-fill, timber and others.

5.Diversion dams are used to divert water into a pump intake structures, or to provide a suitable sump for a pumping station.

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X. Какие из утверждений не соответствуют тематике текста?

1.Water can thus be considered as the most important raw material of civilization.

2.Some ancient men conceived the ideas of diversion of the stream flow from a natural channel to an artificial one.

3.Timber dams are built for the purpose of forming impounding or distributing reservoirs.

4.A person of an ancient time wanted to convey water to some point where it was needed for crops or humans.

5.The ancient builders employed primitive instruments.

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UNIT II

SUSTAINABLE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

I. Прочитайте текст:

A sustainable drainage system (SUDS) is designed to reduce the potential impact of new and existing developments with respect to surface water drainage discharges.

Increasing urbanisation has caused problems with increased flash flooding after sudden rain. As areas of vegetation are replaced by concrete, asphalt, or roofed structures, leading to impervious surfaces, the area loses its ability to absorb rainwater. This rainwater is directed into surface water drainage systems, often overloading them and causing floods.

The idea of the sustainable drainage system is to try to replicate the drainage patterns of natural systems by using cost-effective solutions with low environmental impact to drain away dirty and surface water run-off through collection, storage, and cleaning before allowing it to be released slowly back into the environment. It counters the effects of conventional drainage systems that often cause flooding, pollution of the environment – with the resultant harm to wildlife – and contamination of groundwater sources used to provide drinking water. The paradigm of SUDS solutions should be that of a system that is easy to manage, requiring little or no energy input (except the energy from environmental sources such as sunlight, etc.), resilient to use, and being environmentally as well as aesthetically attractive. Examples of this type of system are basins (shallow landscape depressions that are dry most of the time when it’s not raining), rain gardens (shallow landscape depressions with shrub or herbaceous planting), swales (shallow normally dry, wide-based ditches), filter drains (gravel filled trench drain), bioretention basins (shallow depressions with gravel and/or sand filtration layers beneath the growing medium), reed beds and other wetland habitats that collect, store, and filter dirty water along with providing a habitat for wildlife.

Originally the term SUDS described the UK approach to sustainable urban drainage systems. These developments may not necessarily be in “urban” areas, and thus the “urban” part of SUDS

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is now usually dropped to reduce confusion. Other countries have similar approaches using a different terminology such as best management practice (BMP) and low-impact development in the United States and water-sensitive urban design in Australia.

SUDS use the following techniques:

–source control;

–permeable paving such as pervious concrete;

–storm water detention;

–storm water infiltration;

–evapo-transpiration (e.g. from a green roof).

A common misconception of SUDS is that they reduce flooding on the development site. In fact the SUDS is designed to reduce the impact that the surface water drainage system of one site has on other sites. For instance, sewer flooding is a problem in many places. Paving or new buildings can result in flash flooding. This happens when flows entering a sewer exceed its capacity and it overflows. The SUDS system aims to minimise or eliminate discharges from the site, thus reducing the impact, the idea being that if all development sites incorporated SUDS then urban sewer flooding would be less of a problem. Unlike traditional urban stormwater drainage systems, SUDS can also help to protect and enhance ground water quality.

Sustainable Drainage Systems (also known as SUDS or Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems) are a collection of water management practices that aim to align modern drainage systems with natural water processes. SUDS efforts make urban drainage systems more compatible with components of the natural water cycle such as storm surge overflows, soil percolation, and bio-filtration. These efforts hope to mitigate the effect human development has had or may have on the natural water cycle, particularly surface runoff and water pollution trends. SUDS have become popular in recent decades as our understanding of how urban development affects natural environments, as well as concern for climate change and sustainability, have increased. SUDS often use built components that mimic natural features in order to integrate urban drainage systems into the natural drainage systems or a site as efficiently and quickly as possible.

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History of Drainage Systems

Drainage systems have been found in ancient cities over 5000 years old, including Minoan, Indus, Persian, and Mesopotamian civilizations. These drainage systems focused mostly on reducing nuisances from localized flooding and waste water. Rudimentary systems made from brick or stone channels constituted the extent of urban drainage technologies for centuries. Cities in Ancient Rome also employed drainage systems to protect low-lying areas from excess rainfall. When builders began constructing aqueducts to import fresh water into cities, urban drainage systems became integrated into water supply infrastructure for the first time as a unified urban water cycle.

Modern drainage systems did not appear until the 19th century in Western Europe, although most of these systems were primarily built to deal with sewage issues rising from rapid urbanization. One of such examples is the London sewerage system, which was constructed to combat massive contamination of the River Thames. At that time the River Thames was the primary component of London’s drainage system, with human waste concentrating in the waters adjacent to the densely populated urban center. As a result, several epidemics plagued London’s residents and even members of Parliament, including events known as the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak and the Great Stink of 1858. The concern for public health and quality of life launched several initiatives, which ultimately led to the creation of London’s modern sewerage system designed by Joseph Bazalgette. This new system explicitly aimed to ensure waste water was redirected as far away from water supply sources as possible in order to reduce the threat of waterborne pathogens. Since that time most urban drainage systems have been aimed for similar goals of preventing public health crises.

Within past decades, as climate change and urban flooding have become increasingly urgent challenges, drainage systems designed specifically for environmental sustainability have become more popular in both academia and practice.

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Examples of SUDS

Bioswales

Roadside bioswales are designed to filter storm water runoff from street surfaces. A bioswale is a shallow depression in a piece of land meant to gather and filter stormwater runoff by directing polluted rainwater through soil and vegetation. Besides the environmental benefits that bioswales provide, they are commonly used in public spaces due to their aesthetic qualities; they are easily installed and maintained. Bioswales are designed linearly and slightly sloped. Although bioswales provide passive means to filter runoff indefinitely, they are limited by their momentary capacity for runoff volume. Because of this they can be easily flooded if rainfall events, adjacent surfaces and soil characteristics are not adequately considered.

Bioswales are found in various settings across the globe, particularly in densely built urban areas with paved streets. In Nashville, Tennessee, a renovation of historic Deaderick Street near the city center included bioswales meant to filter runoff from the street surfaces. Its developers claim that bioswales have reduced the amount of runoff entering Nashville’s sewer system by over 1,2 million gallons annually.

Permeable pavement

Permeable pavement systems aim to provide an opportunity for water that falls on hardscaping to seep through to the soil below. This is done by either dividing traditional pavement materials into sections, or using a porous pavement material.

In China paved urban areas have grown rapidly since the 2000s in cities with the population over one million. The Chinese government supporteded the design of several “Sponge Cities” which employ SUDS at city scales throughout the country. One of such examples is Nanhui, a Shanghai suburb designed to combat rising sea levels at China’s eastern coast. Nanhui, previously known as Lingang, uses permeable pavement for roads and public areas to reduce the influence of large urban infrastructure on the natural water cycle. “Sponge City” is an innovative presentation of promoting green buildings, low-carbon cities and smart cities.

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Wetlands

Artificial wetlands can be constructed in areas that see large volumes of storm water surges runoff. Built to replicate shallow marshes, wetlands gather and filter water at scales larger than bioswales or rain gardens. Unlike bioswales, artificial wetlands are designed to replicate natural wetlands processes as opposed to having an engineered mechanism within the artificial wetland. Because of this, the ecology of the wetland (soil components, water, vegetation, microbes, sunlight processes, etc.) becomes the primary system to remove pollutants. Water in an artificial wetland tends to be filtered slowly in comparison to systems with mechanized or engineered components.

Wetlands can be used to concentrate large volumes of runoff from urban areas and neighborhoods. In 2012, the South Los Angeles Wetlands Park was constructed in a densely populated inner-city district as a renovation for a former LA Metro bus yard. The park is designed to capture runoff from surrounding surfaces as well as storm water overflow from the city’s current drainage system.

Detention basins

Detention basins (or retention basins) are storm water detention areas meant to offset excess water that could overrun the capacity of the current filtration or drainage systems. Detention basins reduce peak discharge into drainage systems by methods including slowing runoff velocity, holding excess volume, and trapping sediment that could disrupt drainage systems downstream. Basins can be either wet or dry, depending on whether the default state of the basin is filled with water or only anticipates it during storm surges.

Xang Thoi Pond in Can Tho, Vietnam, is an example how to reduce flooding through detention basins. Can Tho, a large city on the Mekong Delta, is susceptible to seasonal floods and intense rainfall. In response the local government included urban flooding solutions as part of a wider national infrastructural initiative.

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Green roof

Green roofs are landscaped or vegetated areas on the roofs of buildings, usually built to mimic natural landscaping or ground-level parks. Green roofs help drainage systems by offsetting peak discharge from hardscape surfaces, and filtering rainwater directly as it falls. They also have the added advantage of reducing energy consumption for buildings that would otherwise be receiving direct sunlight onto their roofs throughout the day.

As part of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Argentina agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as part of a global effort to combat climate change. Consequentially, many of Argentina’s cities have passed resolutions requiring or encouraging new developments to implement green roofs. In Buenos Aires, the city government provides tax reductions to developments that incorporate green roofs.

II. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту:

1.What factors cause flooding problems in cities after heavy rains?

2.What is the idea of the sustainable drainage system?

3.Why have SUDS become popular in recent decades?

4.What techniques does a sustainable drainage system employ?

5.In what ancient cultures were the first drainage systems found?

6.When did modern drainage systems appear?

7.What is a bioswale?

8.How do permeable pavement systems help to escape flooding during rainfalls?

9.Do artificial wetlands help to deal with seasonal floods and intense rainfall?

10.How do green roofs help drainage systems?

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THE INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME

ON THE STATE OF THE OCEAN (IPSO)

I. Прочитайте текст:

The International Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO) focuses on many factors that threaten the health of Earth’s oceans. The organization is managed as a not for profit company registered in the United Kingdom. It is hosted by the Zoological Society of London.

The biggest threat to our Ocean’s health is climate change, with its twin super-dangers of rising sea temperatures and acidification. If we had the power and resources to address this single-handed, we would. As we don’t, IPSO’s remit is to reduce the other main stressors on the Ocean – summarized below – to give it the best chance of dealing with climate change.

The International Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO) was established to enable a greater scientific understanding of the role of the ocean at an Earth System level and to consider the consequences of the multiple stressors exerted upon it for life on Earth.

IPSO works with the world’s leading marine scientists to consider the cumulative impacts of anthropogenic stressors from climate change through to the harvesting of marine species and what the consequences of these are for the ability of the ocean to function as part of the planet’s life support system and to provide food and other ecosystem services to humankind.

In June 2013 a report was released by the International Programmes on the State of the Ocean, announcing the results of a high level summit. Conclusions? It’s worse than we thought. We are rapidly accelerating toward the next wide-scale extinction event in the oceans, and the rate of change is faster than anticipated.

The team of international scientists published a grave assessment of current threats and a stark conclusion about future risks to marine and human life. If the current trajectory of damage continues, the world's ocean is at high risk of entering an unprecedented phase of extinction of marine species.

The greatest threat the group concluded was climate change leading to ocean acidification.

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Ocean acidification is a direct result of the absorption of carbon dioxide by the ocean. This threatens all marine animals and plants that secrete calcium carbonate as part of their structure. Ocean acidification can prevent marine animals, from snails to plankton to corals, from building their protective shells.

Historically and before the presence of humans, three factors have been present in every mass extinction event: low oxygen levels (hypoxia) and the absence of oxygen (anoxia) causing ocean dead zones; ocean warming; and ocean acidification. Thanks to modern technology, we have accelerated and exacerbated the conditions leading to the historical marine extinctions. Already one quarter of the world’s coral reefs have vanished and another one third are endangered. Ninety percent of the ocean’s great fish have vanished.

Species like sharks contribute to the health of the ocean, but they are being systematically and unsustainably fished.

Climate and marine experts found strong evidence that the effects of the three factors, coupled with other human induced impacts such as overfishing and nutrient runoff from farming, have already caused a dramatic decline in ocean health.

The last great extinction event occurred 55 million years ago, where over half of all deep sea species became extinct. It has been determined that the rate of carbon absorption in the ocean is already greater than the conditions that led to that event.

It was concluded that these impacts are synergistic and the rate of degeneration is far faster than previously predicted. The report urges strong and rapid action by governments to reduce carbon emissions such as those urged by the last IPCO report, better manage our fisheries – especially those of the high seas, and increase marine reserves to serve as pockets of resilience.

The conclusions are serious indeed, yet it also offers solutions, many of which we can deal with in our daily lives. As citizens, we can work for ocean health by driving less, eating only sustainable seafood, minimizing run off from detergents and fertilizers and supporting marine protection.

The ocean and ocean life are too important to lose through negligence or ignorance.

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As one of the co-authors of the event Dr. Dan Laffoley stated, “The time to protect the blue heart of our planet is now, today and urgent”.

The ocean is our planet’s heartbeat, and the future heartbeat for billions of humans. Let’s keep it beating.

Climate change report abstract

The ocean has been shielding the earth from the worst effects of rapid climate change by absorbing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This absorption of CO2 is driving the ocean along the pH gradient towards more acidic conditions. At the same time ocean warming is having pronounced impacts on the composition, structure and functions of marine ecosystems. Warming, freshening (in some areas) and associated stratification are driving a trend in ocean deoxygenation, which is being enhanced in parts of the coastal zone by upwelling of hypoxic deep water.

The combined impact of warming, acidification and deoxygenation are already having a dramatic effect on the flora and fauna of the oceans with significant changes in distribution of populations, and decline of sensitive species. In many cases, the impacts of warming, acidification and deoxygenation are increased by the effects of other human impacts, such as pollution, eutrophication and overfishing.

The interactive effects of this deadly trio mirrors similar events in the Earth’s past, which were often coupled with the extinctions of major species’ groups. Here we review the observed impacts and, using past episodes in the Earth’s history, set out what the future may hold if carbon emissions and climate change are not significantly reduced with more or less immediate effect.

Pollution

Most pollution in the Ocean originates from industry, agriculture or domestic sources on land – whether dumped directly into the sea or reaching it via rivers and air currents.

The release of sewage and wastes into coastal ecosystems directly increases microbial activity through the provision of organic matter. This in turn depletes oxygen in the water column and can

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lead to the development of “dead zones” in coastal waters. In other places, this artificial enrichment of coastal waters causes outbreaks of harmful algal blooms which poison other marine life.

In addition, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), plastics, petroleum and pesticides all have devastating effects on marine life and are transferred up the food chain to impact directly on human health.

Fishing

Marine fishery is a vital supply of protein for large parts of the world's population. It is critical that the management of fisheries is improved for the sake of global food security in the future, as well as to mitigate their devastating impact on the Ocean. Improvement of fisheries is a complex problem and demands action on many fronts. Some of these actions include:

1.Reducing the capacity of global fishing fleets.

2.Eliminating harmful fishing subsidies.

3.Introducing rights-based fisheries management practices to give ownership of fisheries resources to fishers and prevent the “Tragedy of the Commons”.

4.Eliminating illegal, unregistered and unreported fishing through improved port-state control of fishing fleets, improving monitoring control and surveillance, and improving systems of traceability of fish products at all levels of the supply chain.

5.Improving international ocean governance, particularly with respect to the management of fisheries. This includes improving the means to enforce international law with respect to fishing and improving the functioning, transparency and accountability of institutions that are critical to the implementation of sustainable fisheries management, such the Regional Fisheries Management Organisations.

6.Implementing technical improvements in fishing methods to prevent ecosystem-impacts, including the by-catch of non-target species.

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