The English Matters for University Students. Practical and Theoretical Issues. Учебное пособие для студентов 2-3 курсов, обучающихся по направлению 45

The English Verb and Its Properties

The voice can be active and passive. It should be mentioned that the number of passive tense forms is not as big as that of active tense forms. It is determined by the tendency of language economy – some of the passive tense forms would be too bulky if they really existed (The Future Continuous, the Perfect Continuous).

The categories of Number and Person are closely interrelated. They find their formal expression through the suffix “s” added to the verbs in the present if they correlate to the subject in singular the third person (the boy, he, mother, she), also person and/or number are observed in such forms as am, is, was, has, does.

In the English language verbs can function in two forms: finite and nonfinite. The main difference between these verbal forms is in the fact that “finite forms are used as the predicate of a sentence (the Simple Verbal Predicate), while non-finite forms” (4, c. 58) are not independent and can be only a PART of predicates. The non-finite forms are: Infinitive, Gerund, Participle. These verbal forms lack some categories of “normal” verbs, they don’t have the categories of person and number, but they have their system of tenses and voiceforms, though restricted in comparison with finite verbs.

The morphological structure of verbs (the way the verbs are formed) can be different; according to it verbs can be:

a)simple (sleep, take); b) derived (unplug, reset); c) compound (daydream);

d)composite (go on, run away). A special type of verbs is called conversive verbs (love – to love).

The Past Indefinite and Participle II of verbs can be formed differently – by means of a flection or by changing the root-vowel of the whole stem of the verb. According to the way of formation of the above-mentioned forms verbs can be:

1) regular (by adding -ed – work – worked).

2) irregular (go-went-gone). These forms are traditionally registered in the special table.

3) mixed (show – showed – shown).

The very important division of English verbs is “into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs, link verbs and modal/semi-modal verbs” (4, c. 58)

a)Notional verbs are characterized by the presence of a full literary meaning/meanings which are registered in dictionaries; they can be used as a simple verbal predicate (to comprehend, to sweep);

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b)Auxiliary verbs are considered to be form words because they have completely lost their lexical meaning; at the same time retaining the grammatical one; they are used to form analytical grammar structures (will read, has done);

c)Link verbs partially lost their original meaning (though sometimes it can be restored: Unfortunately, parents don’t get younger (не молодеют/не

становятся моложе); they are used in the compound nominal predicates in which link verbs are followed by the so called predicative (in the Russian linguistic tradition – the nominal part of the compound predicate). Mind the fact that in the Russian language nominal predicates frequently include adverbs while in English adjectives are used in this case (Она странно выглядит – She looks strange. Грустно видеть дом в таком запущенном состоянии – It is sad to see the house in such a neglected condition). In the English language there are many link verbs. Some of them are frequently used (to be), some of the link verbs are rather “exotic” and are used just occasionally (to act/to play –

прикинуться: The beggar acted frightened to death; The fox played dead; to wax (the archaic word) – cтановиться: His total look waxed sinister). A group of English link verbs has the meaning “to become” (the condition/state/quality of the object/person changes, some new features and qualities appear): to turn, to get, to go, to grow, to fall, to come, to run, to make (His neck grew as scarlet as the reddest tomatoes; They made friends very soon; The old woman ran infuriated; He fell ill). Another group of link verbs deals in a way with sense perception, such link verbs describe people’s impressions of other people, objects and phenomena; people get these impressions through their organs of perception (eyes, ears, nose, skin receptors, taste buds): to look (выглядеть), to taste (быть на вкус), to smell (пахнуть), to feel (быть на ощупь), to sound (звучать) (The dress looked cheap; The drink tasted bitter; The oysters smelt disgusting; The water in the bath felt icy; His last words sounded harsh). Some link verbs denote the stability of some quality: to keep, to remain, to stay (He stayed motionless; Though burning with hatred inside, she kept friendly and polite). Some link verbs are difficult to be attached to any semantic group: to seem – казаться, to appear/to prove – оказаться (Brisken seemed a pleasant fellow to those who didn’t know him closely; in reality he appeared vindictive and cruel).

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The English Verb and Its Properties

d) Modal verbs express different kinds of modality (it is the property of a verb to denote not an action but a person’s attitude to the action introduced through an infinitive). Semi-modal verbs retain some properties of “normal” verbs: You have to get up early, don’t you?

The important subdivisuions of verbs are a) transitive/intransitive; b) terminative/non-terminative.

Transitive verbs are those which can be followed by a direct object (an object without a preposition) (to bring (pills), to sign (a document), to earn (money)).

Intransitive verbs can never be followed by a direct object (to laugh, to sleep, to weep).

Terminative verbs imply a certain limit beyond which an action cannot go

(to enter, to open, to sit down).

Non-terminative verbs do not bear the evident semantic meaning of finality (to eat, to study, to walk, to sing).

Questions:

1)What are the formal signs of person and number of English verbs?

2)What is ASPECT as a grammatical category?

3)Which moods do you know? Tell in what way the Indicative and the Subjunctive Mood differ from each other.

4)What are the three non-finite forms? Why are they called like that?

5)What is the direct/indirect object?

6)Which kinds of verbs lack the following categories: person, number, transitivity/intransitivity?

7)Why are semi-modal verbs called like that?

8)Is it correct to say “The modal verb COULD is used in the Past Simple Tense”?

9)Do the non-finite verbal forms imply the categories of tense and voice?

10)What is the difference between terminative and non-terminative verbs? Give your own examples of these verbal types.

11)Which link verbs pertain to the group with the meaning “to become”, showing the transition of an object from one state to another?

Which link verbs deal with sense perception? Which other groups can be distinguished?

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PART 2. THE THEORETICAL ISSUES

Verbs as the Basis of Predicates

We have known since school years that verbs are the basic part of predicates. Going deeper in theoretical issues we find out that predicates can be of two main types according to the combinatoric potential of verbs predicates are based on: Simple Predicates and Compound Predicates.

In the Simple Verbal Predicates there is a purely verbal basis (a notional verb alone or a notional verb + one or more auxiliary verbs) – in other words, this type of predicate is presented by a notional verb in any tense, voice and mood: They had been speaking for an hour or so (the predicate is expressed by the notional verb “to speak” in the Past Perfect Continuous

Tense, Active Voice, Indicative Mood); The Simpsons were invited to the

President’s party last year (the predicate is expressed by the notional verb “to invite” in the Past Simple Tense, Passive Voice, Indicative Mood); If only my Father were here now….(the predicate is expressed by the notional verb “to be” in the Past Tense (the Past Subjunctive), Subjunctive Mood).

The Simple Phraseological Predicate is presented by phraseological units (set expressions) which can include different parts of speech, the most typical structure of verbal set expressions is “a verb + a noun” (to pay attention, to take care etc), sometimes adjectives and other parts of speech are inserted in the phrase (to have a good time, to keep smth for a rainy day). In spite of such a complex composition of set expressions, including several constituent parts, they form simple predicates because each idiomatic phrase is a semantic whole, an undivided semantic unit, and it is senseless to consider its elements taken separately.

The Compound predicates generally consist of two elements whose grammatical properties differ greatly, they don’t form a semantic unit.

The Compound Nominal Predicate is presented by a link verb (see the information about link verbs above) and a predicative (a nominal part). Predicatives can be presented by nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, gerunds, infinitives and even articles, prepositions, conjunctions and other small form words (if they are used as quotations): In September leaves on maple-trees turned golden; Steven became my best companion; This problem is hers, not ours; Traditionally the number on his t-shirt was eleven. His only entertainment was watching the neighbors’ wild scandals; The main problem for them was to find a legal job; The only word which could be clearly seen

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The English Verb and Its Properties

was “and”; The composite conjunctions are as soon as, as if, in case and some others.

The Compound Modal Predicate consists of two elements: a modal constituent + an infinitive. Modality is inherent to the following linguistic items: a) purely modal verbs; b) semi-modal verbs; c) modal phrases (to be able, to be allowed, to be going – собираться); d) verbs with the modal shade which show a person’s attitude to another action expressed by an infinitive (to want, to like, to hate, to try, to expect etc). Infinitives can be preceded by the particle “to” or “bare” infinitives can be used: I have to cope with all this; You are to wait the boss at the parking spot; The hosts must feel great indignation after this incident.

The Compound Aspect Predicate has the model “an aspect verb + an infinitive or a gerund”. Aspect verbs are those that denote the starting point, the continuation or the end of the action, process or mental operation (to begin, to continue, to keep on, to stop, to give up, to cease): He kept on looking at Sally with a devoted air. Besides, the aspect shade is ascribed to the verb “used (to)” and the modal verb “would” which have the meaning of regular habitual action in the past: He used to walk in the nearest grove after dinner (He would walk…..) – Он имел обыкновение прогуливаться …Most of the aspect verbs can be followed by either infinitive or gerund without changing their aspect meaning. But in some cases the use of different nonfinite forms radically changes the meaning of the sentence. Compare: He stopped looking at the shop-window (the action was finished; “stopped” here – an aspect verb, “stopped looking” – a Compound Aspect Predicate. He stopped (What for? With what purpose?) to look at the shop-window;

“stopped” is a Simple Verbal Predicate, “to look” is an adverbial modifier of purpose.

Analyze all the verbs In the following sentences from the point of view of all their types and categories: tense, voice, mood, aspect (if possible), person, number (if there are any), finite/non-finite, transitive/intransitive, terminative/non-terminative. Mind the morphological structure of the verbs and the way they form their Past Simple and Participle II. Note: In analytical verbal forms (consist of two or more elements) you may use two approaches: 1) verbal constituents can be analyzed separately (She is smiling – “Is” – an auxiliary verb possessing the categories of person

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The English Verb and Its Properties

He is still working. – Он все еще работает.

She has been sleeping since 2 o’clock – Она спит с двух часов. We are invited to the party – Мы приглашены на вечеринку.

We were invited to the party – Нас пригласили на вечеринку / Мы были приглашены на вечеринку.

We will be invited to the party – Нас пригласят на вечеринку / Мы будем приглашены на вечеринку.

2)A link verb. It provides the “link” between the subject and the predicative (the nominal part); the word “nomina” is translated from Latin as “name”, a predicative is very often expressed by the parts of speech which are called “names” in the Russian Grammar – имя существительное/имя

прилагательное). The link word to be is usually not translated into Russian, Graphically it is substituted by a dash (He is a student. Он – студент). Sometimes it has the archaic translation – “есть”, which gives a certain stylistic and emotional colouring to the utterance (Учится есть ваша наипервейшая задача. Learning is your most significant task). Aside from nouns and adjectives, predicatives can be expressed by other parts of speech:

My hobby is making wooden toys. His idea was to drop the business immediately. Your number is five. His only word he managed to catch was

“without”.

3)A notional verb. It is an independent verb which can have a full literary meaning. It forms a Simple Verbal Predicate and is translated into

Russian as “находиться” (the meaning of location: The Browns are in the living-room); “пребывать” (the meaning of state, condition: He was in a strange mood); “существовать”, “присутствовать”, “иметь место” (the meaning of existence: To be or not to be – that is the question. There are different sorrows in this world. There was something fascinating in her manner of touching the flowers).

4)A modal verb. In this meaning the verb “to be” is followed by an infinitive with the particle “to” and can have the following meanings:

a) a formal (official) obligation (перевод – «должен»): For tomorrow you are to translate Text 1. Before leaving the office the secretary is to unplug all pieces of office-equipment.

b) a prearranged action in the future (перевод – «должен»): He is to come tonight. He promised me yesterday.

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c) something unavoidable that is certain to happen in the future (перевод –

«суждено», «на роду написано»): No one could suppose that the tiny baby was to conquer the whole world.

5) A part of set expressions which usually do not have a word-to-word translation: to be fond of – любить, to be going to – собираться.

Apart from grammatical potential, the verb “to be” can be a lexical wordderivative element which expresses the idea of a future happening (a person is going to obtain some other status in the future): a wtiter-to-be, a mother-to-be.

The Verb TO BE in Impersonal Sentences

The verb to be is an essential constituent part of impersonal sentences with the introductory (anticipatory) personal pronoun “it”. “To be” here is a link verb followed by a predicative which is expressed by adjectives belonging to one of the following semantic groups: 1) emotional evaluation (inspiring –

вдохновляющий, embarrassing – смущающий, обескураживающий, boring –

скучный); 2) moral evaluation (dishonest – нечестный; vile – подлый, мерзкий) 3) the physical condition of the environment (stuffy – душный; dirty/filthy – грязный; chilly – промозглый/зябкий); 4) general evaluation (wonderful-прекрасный/awful-ужасный; easy-легкий/difficult-трудный; important-важный/unimportant-неважный). There is a number of impersonal constructions with “to be”. In some of them the “person” is involved in the situation, taking the position not of the subject but of the object with the preposition “for”: It is/was (an adjective) for smb … (that) (a clause) – It was really amusing for Julia (that) the poor boy hoped to gain her attention; It is/was (an adjective) for smb … + an Infinitive – It was unbearable for

Adam to stay in the house where the terrible murder had been committed many years ago. The most appropriate model to depict the condition of the environment is It is/was (an adjective) (an adverbial modifier of place – optional) – It is dark. It was very close in the compartment. The pattern It is/was … of smb + an Infinitive is suitable to characterize people’s actions from the moral point of view – It was mean of him to say that he didn’t have money when I asked him for help.

Translate the sentences and correlate them with impersonal constructions expressing different types of evaluation with adjectives of different semantic meaning:

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The English Verb and Its Properties

1. Джулии было неприятно это слышать. 2. Мне странно, что ты не хочешь присоединиться к нам. 3. Глупо надеяться, что он прийдет. 4. Вам необходимо проконсультироваться с врачом. 5. Мальчику было смешно, что взрослые такие серьезные. 6. С ее стороны было смело написать ему.

7.Было приятно осознавать, что Том больше ничего для нее не значил.

8.В саду прохладно. 9. В лесу было сыро. 10. Детям было весело ловить бабочек. 11. Джеку было трудно адаптироваться к новой обстановке.

12.Миссис Карсон было ясно, что у девушка не являлась подходящей парой для ее сына. 13. С ее стороны было невежливо сесть за стол без приглашения. 14) Дориану было невыносимо видеть, что его возлюбленная так ужасно играла. 15) В вагоне было очень душно. 16) Было забавно наблюдать, как молодой человек краснел каждый раз, когда Джулия обращалась к нему.

Translate the text into Russian and fill in the table The Beautiful Embodiment of Evil

The boy was raised in the poor hut of the Peasant. Year by year he was turning more and more beautiful. All the people from the neighbourhood were puzzled: the Peasant’s children were dark-skinned, black-haired and rough, but the boy was as white and dainty as ivory. His exquisite curls resembled those of a golden statue. His green-blue eyes were like rare precious stones. His skin was as snow-white silk. His body was shapely and his movements were graceful but nobody dared to say that he was looking like a girl because the lad didn’t think long before bringing down a crushing blow upon the head of the poor thing who had a misfortune to cause his slightest discontent.

His beauty was infernal because he grew arrogant, selfish and ruthless. He looked down upon the children of the Peasant and the other kids, and adults too. He said they were plebeians, while he was of noble origin. He himself and all the villagers were sure that he was living in such dark surroundings through some misunderstanding. He was hard of heart and treated the poor without any mercy and compassion. His only idol was he himself – so fascinated was he by his magic but devilish beauty.

The villagers were greatly mistreated by the boy, but they couldn’t be angry with him. Moreover, they couldn’t help admiring and even idolizing him. They

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believed he was to become a prominent person, probably a king. They were proud that such a wonderful creature was living among them.

Translate the sentences and analyze the functions of the verb “to be”.

1. Перед походом в Воксхол Джозеф пребывал в благодушном настроении. 2. Где твой друг? – Он в лаборатории. 3. Где ты был вчера? – Я был у бабушки. 4. Его сын очень умный. 5. Ее поведение довольно странное. 6. Каковы ваши предложения? 7. Кто их начальник? 8. Он художник, не так ли? 9. Он постоянно рассказывает глупые анекдоты. 10. Кейт на кухне? – Да, она моет посуду. 11. В комнате холодно. 12. Летом в Ростове очень жарко. 13. Глупо идти в магазин без денег. 14. Дождь идет с утра. 15. Эту посылку принесли вчера. 16. В твоей контрольной много ошибок. 17. В этой комнате есть зеркало? 18. Было что-то зловещее в его словах. 19. Я собираюсь купить новый планшет. 20. В прошлый вторник я болел. 21. Моя бабушка любит кошек. 22. Я горжусь моими родителями. 23. Она собиралась снять квартиру недалеко от университета. 24. На завтра вы должны проанализировать эти предложения. 25. Мы должны были встретиться в 5 часов, но он не пришел. 26. Приятно прогуляться по пляжу вечером. 27. Девочка боялась темноты. 28. Ты – настоящий друг. 29. Когда начальник заходил в офис, она должна была сделать ему кофе и ждать дальнейших указаний. 30. Никто не может знать, что ему на роду написано. 31. Позвольте мне представить вам моего будущего мужа. 32. В углу стоял большой книжный шкаф. 33. Его единственная проблема – найти работу рядом с домом.

The most general rule of using articles in the English language runs that usually a countable common class noun in singular must be modified by an article – either definite or indefinite. The choice of articles depends on the context and the meaning of the article.

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