Petroleum engineering. Нефтегазовая инженерия. Учебное пособие

WRITING

15. Write the summary of the text "Unconventional Reservoirs".

GRAMMAR

MODAL VERBS

Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты

К модальным глаголам относятся глаголы can, may, must, ought to, should. Модальные глаголы не имеют формы инфинитива, т.е. перед ними не употребляется частица to. Смысловые глаголы употребляются после модальных глаголов без частицы to (Исключение ought to)

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I can speak English. (Я могу говорить по-английски.) 1.  Вопросительная форма образуется передвижением модального

глагола на первое место в предложении: Must you go to the University tomorrow? (You must go to the University tomorrow.)

В отрицательном предложении после модального глагола упо-

требляется частица not (cannot, must not, should not): She cannot give you her text-book.

Глаголыcan, may имеютформынастоящегоипрошедшеговремени: can (could), may (might).

Глаголmust имеет только одну форму. Чтобы отнести его к прошедшему или будущему времени нужно использовать его эквиваленты: to be to, to have to

ЗНАЧЕНИЯ МОДАЛЬНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ

Изучите употребление модальных глаголов в сочетании с Perfect Infinitive.

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16. Translate the sentences from English into Russian.

1.Heavy graders are used when large volumes of soil have to be handled.

2.The device can provide great opportunities.

3.Scrapers should be used on moderate wet sandy soils.

4.It must be understood that engine requirements differ considerably.

5.Such substances may cause cancer.

6.Hazardous consequences should be vastly lowered.

7.Global warming may result in profound shifts of climate.

8.The material may be discharged with the help of various devices.

9.The results of the experiment can be easily calculated.

10.Consumers should ask about the contents of dangerous substances.

11.The cost of the production could be cut more than 50%.

12.The share arm can be raised with a disk knife.

13.Depending on the style, the resistor may be encapsulated in lacquer, high temperature cement or by molding.

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14. Infectious diseases can spread very fast.

15.Ethanol can be fatal if ingested, inhaled or absorbed through the skin.

17.Study the table showing the use of modals with Perfect Infinitive. Translate the sentences.

1.We do not believe scientists could have achieved such progress.

2.The researchers may not have known about those data.

3.The explosion must have occurred long ago.

4.The assistant might have made a mistake.

5.We figured that they must have obtained new results of the experiment.

6.Safety engineering should have done it previously.

7.Some problems of science could not have been solved without isotopes.

8.The goods are reported to have been delivered.

9.The research must have been performed according to the safety instruc-

tions.

10.He must have found out about the conference beforehand.

11.The influence of temperatures on these substances should have been studied long ago.

12.No living beings could have survived in such climate.

13.Carbon steels must have been used in the construction of this building.

14.Life may have been existed on that planet.

15.A lot of practical difficulties must have been encountered in the implementation of this idea.

16.The research on nickel alloys may have been done last term.

17.The explanation cannot have been adequate under the circumstances.

18.The experiment should have been performed beforehand.

19.They must have arrived at these principles through observation and experiment.

20.I could have gone to the conference but I lost my invitation.

21.The delegation must have missed their flight.

THE INFINITIVE

The verbs listed here are normally followed by the Infinitive with to, with or without an object.

1.  Usually without an object:

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e.g. No scientist can afford to ignore the mistakes made by his or her predecessors.

2.  Usually with an object:

allow permit advise enable encourage force invite order persuade remind teach tell warn expect

e.g. The guards allowed photographers to enter the campus territory.

18.Translate the sentences into Russian, paying attention to the Infinitive.

1.We need to consider first of all the various types of materials used.

2.They expect you to meet the delegates of the conference at the airport.

3.She pretended not to understand us.

4.Ben does not allow anybody to use his computer.

5.My friend seems to forget everything,

6.The colleagues advised me not to interfere.

7.They hope to take part in the seminar next week.

8.Professor Green reminded her team not to talk to journalists.

9.Selco only manage to survive the recession by selling its assets in

Spain.

10.He finally agreed to help us.

11.They invited us to join them in their research.

19.Translate from English into Russian, paying attention to the Infinitive.

1.To solve this complicated problem is an actual task in our investigation.

2.He expected to discover more accurate figures in the course of the experiment.

3.He was one of the first scientists to appreciate the importance of complex numbers.

4.It is a peculiar thing to do.

5.He was able to create an ingenious method.

6.To complete the survey, you have to collect more data.

7.You might prefer to experiment with these substances.

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8.This approach gives you great power to reveal hidden relations between these methods.

9.Nowadays scientists tend to take these benefits for granted.

10.It is hard to believe that they achieved such great progress.

20.Translate from Russian into English, using different forms of the Infinitive.

1.Это позволяет нам производить оборудование нового поколения.

2.Он, должно быть, обдумывает результаты своей работы.

3.Мы довольны тем, что получили подобные данные.

4.Было бы отлично выполнить проект до наступления крайнего

срока.

5.Нам надо закончить множество экспериментов.

6.Установку следует демонтировать.

7.Ему надо попросит техника починить станок.

8.Руководитель заставил его повторить эксперимент.

9.Оказывается, они талантливые ученые.

10.Натрий и хлор соединяются, образуя хлорид натрия.

21.Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one, using enough.

Follow the example given below.

She is clever. She can answer the question. – She is clever enough to answer the question.

1.The data were sufficient. We could conduct a survey.

2.The arguments are strong. He can prove his viewpoint.

3.The equipment is new. The mechanics can make the moulds.

4.The experiments are numerous. They can come to a definite conclu-

sion.

5.They are prepared. They can answer the opponents̒questions.

22.Translate the sentences, paying attention to the Complex Subject.

1.The plane was reported to have landed safely.

2.He is considered to be a good specialist.

3.He is said to be working on this report.

4.That project was declared to have taken the first place.

5.The conference was supposed to be making great progress.

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23. Translate the sentences using the Passive Infinitive.

1.Мы хотим, чтобы предложение было принято.

2.Я бы хотел, чтобы эксперимент был проведен прямо сейчас.

3.Мы не хотим, чтобы станок демонтировали.

4.Руководитель хочет, чтобы проблема была решена немедленно.

5.Мы ожидаем, что факты будут доказаны.

SPEAKING

24. Speak about the benefits and drawbacks of modern oil well dril-

ling.

Use the following phrases.

What counts (matters) here is...

It is important to keep in mind that...

It is vital to note...

On the one hand...on the other hand...

This plays important/key/major/prominent role in...

To my way of thinking, ...

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UNIT 4. HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

BEFORE YOU READ

1.What do you know about hydraulic fracturing?

2.What can you say about new methods of oil and gas production?

VOCABULARY

READING

1. Read the text.

Hydraulic Fracturing

Hydraulic fracturing has been used in the oil and natural gas industry since the 1940s. Fracking with modern horizontal drilling technology has safely unlocked vast reserves of oil and natural gas found in shale and other tight-rock formations, launching a renaissance in oil and natural gas production, and creating tens of thousands of jobs and fueling economy. And the key to unlocking these reserves is through the process of hydraulic fracturing, or fracking.

What is hydraulic fracturing? Economically it’s energy and opportunity for better lives and a stronger, more energy-secure country: from one of limited options to one of nearly limitless plenty. Technically it is a well

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stimulation process used to maximize the extraction of underground resources; including oil, natural gas, geothermal energy.

Developing energy from tight-rock formations using hydraulic fracturing/horizontal drilling takes four to eight weeks – from preparing the site for development to production itself – after which the well can be in production for 20 to 40 years. A well can be a mile or more deep and thousands of feet below groundwater zones before gradually turning horizontal from vertical. The horizontal portion then can stretch more than 6,000 feet. A single well site (or pad) can accommodate a number of wells. Steel pipe known as surface casing is cemented into place at the uppermost portion of a well to protect the groundwater. As the well is drilled deeper, additional casing is installed to isolate the formation(s) from which oil or natural gas is to be produced, further protecting groundwater from the producing formations in the well. Numerous protective measures are in place at well sites, including liners under well pads, rubber composite mats under rigs, storage tanks with secondary containment measures, and barriers to control any potential runoff.

After the wells on a pad are drilled, cased and cemented, a device perforates the horizontal part of the production pipe to make small holes in the casing, exposing the wellbore to the shale. Then a mixture of water (90 percent), sand (9.5 percent) and chemicals (0.5 percent) is pumped into the well under high pressure to create micro-fractures in the shale and free natural gas or oil. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants (either sand or aluminium oxide) hold open the small fractures once the deep rock achieves geologic equilibrium. The chemicals are chiefly agents to reduce friction and prevent corrosion. After fracturing is completed, the internal pressure of the geologic formation cause the injected fracturing fluids to rise to the surface where it may be stored in tanks or pits prior to disposal or recycling. Recovered fracturing fluids are referred to as flowback. Disposal options for flowback include discharge into surface water or underground injection. Flowback is required to be treated prior to discharge into surface water. Treatment is typically performed by wastewater treatment facilities.

Effective hydraulic fracturing regulation can only be achieved at the state level as state regulations can be tailored to geological and local needs. Key state regulations include: review and approval of permits; well design, location and spacing; drilling operations; water management and disposal; air

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emissions; wildlife impacts; surface disturbance; worker health and safety; inspection and enforcement of day-to-day oil and gas operations. The development of advanced hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling has been accompanied by safe and responsible water management strategies employing innovative technologies to allow reuse of fluids produced during the fracturing phase of well development. Fracking is also accompanied by microseismic vibrations that can be recorded with sensitive listening devices and analyzed with established scientific methods. Microseismic mapping is used to understand and optimize field development, well completions, and stage treatments. This monitoring produces extensive data, thus microseismic activity associated with hydraulic fracturing is well understood.

Generally speaking hydraulic fracturing represents minimal risk to humans, animals, structures or the environment. Nonetheless, the industry has made safety a top priority and invests heavily in modeling and mapping the earth’s subsurface to constantly improve its understanding of fault lines and other geological structures. The continued development of monitoring and modeling capabilities to improve the process will provide ongoing assurance of the safety and effectiveness of this critical well-completion procedure.

DEVELOPING PROFESSIONAL VOCABULARY WORKING OUT THE MEANING OF UNKNOWN WORDS

2. The following words in the box are all from the text above. Find them in the text.

fracturing microseismic disturbance containment geothermal

3. For each word, read the sentence it occurs in and answer the questions.

a)Is the word positive, negative or neutral?

b)Is it a noun, adjective, adverb or verb?

c)Can you think of a word with a similar meaning (synonym) and one with an opposite meaning (antonym)?

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