Guide to Legal Contracts = Английский язык для юристов договорное право. Учебное пособие по английскому языку для студентов юридических вузов

XI.  Match these terms with their definitions.

XII.  Agree or disagree

1. A contract is legally enforceable only if it is based on an express agreement of the parties.

2.  For a contract to be enforceable it is not necessary to be in writ-

ing.

3. A contract is treated as valid even in the absence of any one of its four essential elements.

4.  Intoxicated persons by no means are considered legally incompetent.

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5.  If the subject matter of a contract is against law they say that it is a negative contract.

6.  In contractual relations consideration is an equivalent to prom-

ise.

XIII.  Choose the words from the group below to complete the text. It may be necessary to change the form of the given words.

consideration, exchange, respect, promise, consist, refrain (2), essential, distinguish, deem, fulfill, accept (2), conclude, comply, circumstance, jurisdiction, dispute, reciprocity, apply

Bilateral Contract

An agreement formed by an exchange of a promise in which the promise of one party is consideration supporting the promise of the other party. A bilateral contract is distinguishable from a unilateral contract, a promise made by one party in 1) ... for the performance of some act by the other party.The party to a unilateral contract whose performance is sought is not obligated to act, but if he or she does, the party that made the promise is bound to 2) ... with the terms of the agreement. In a bilateral contract both parties are bound by their exchange of 3) … . Both parties to a bilateral contract make promises. With 4) ... to the promise in issue, the party making the promise is the promisor and the other party is the promisee.The legal detriment incurred by the promisee 5) ... of a different promise by him or her to do something or 6) ... from doing something that he or she was not previously legally obligated to do or to 7) ... from doing. This legal detriment constitutes consideration, the cause, motive, or benefit that induces one to enter into a contract. Consideration is an 8)

... component of a contract. Traditionally, courts have 9) ... between unilateral and bilateral contracts by determining whether one or both parties provided consideration and at what point they provided the consideration. Bilateral contracts were said to bind both parties the minute the parties exchange promises, as each promise is 10) ... sufficient consideration in itself. Unilateral contracts are said to bind only the promisor and do not bind the promisee unless the promise accepts

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by performing the obligations specified in the promisor’s offer. Until the promisee performs, he or she has provided no 11)... under the law. For example, if someone offered to drive you to work on Mondays and Tuesdays in exchange for your promise to return the favor on Wednesdays and Thursdays, a bilateral contract would be formed binding both of you once you provided consideration by 12) ... those terms. But if that same person offered to pay you $10 each day you drove him to work, a unilateral contract would be formed, binding only upon the promisor until you provided consideration by driving him to work on a particular day. Modern courts have de-emphasized the distinction between unilateral and bilateral contracts. These courts have found that an offer may be 13) ... either by a promise to perform or by actual performance. An increasing number of courts have 14)

... that the traditional distinction between unilateral and bilateral contracts fails to significantly advance legal analysis in a growing number of cases where performance is provided over an extended period of time. Suppose you promise to pay someone $500.00 to paint your house. The promise sounds like an offer to enter a unilateral contract that binds only you until the promisee accepts by painting your house. But what constitutes lawful “performance” under these 15) ... ? The act of beginning to paint your house or completely finishing the job to your satisfaction? Most courts would rule that the act of beginning performance under these circumstances converts a unilateral contract into a bilateral contract, requiring both parties to 16) ... the obligations contemplated by the contract. However, other courts would analyze the facts of each case so as not to frustrate the reasonable expectations of the parties. In neither of these cases are the legal rights of the parties ultimately determined by the courts by applying the concepts of unilateral and bilateral contracts. In still other 17) ... , courts have simply expressed a preference for interpreting contracts as creating bilateral obligations in all cases where there is no clear evidence that a unilateral contract was intended. The rule has been stated that in case of doubt an offer will be presumed to invite the formation of a bilateral contract by a promise to perform what the offer requests, rather than the formation of a unilateral contract commencing at the time of actual performance. The bottom line across most jurisdictions is that as courts have been confronted by a growing variety of fact patterns involving

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complicated contract 18) ... , courts have shifted from rigidly applying the concepts of unilateral and bilateral contracts to a more ad hoc approach. Mutuality of obligation must exist in an enforceable bilateral con¬ tract, and this involves the concept of 19) … . A cannot enforce B’s promise unless A’s promise entails a legal detriment, and B can enforce A’s promise only if B’s promise involves a legal detriment. If a minor enters a bilateral contract with an adult that is unenforceable due to the minor’s age, the adult party cannot assert absence of mutuality as a defense if the minor sues to enforce the contract. This principle 20) ... to any situation where the law grants a particular party a privilege to avoid a contract because of his or her status.

West’s encyclopedia of American law

XIV.  Render the following texts into English.

Оферта

Предложение заключить договор именуется офертой и должно удовлетворять определенным требованиям. Оферта должна быть адресована одному или нескольким конкретным лицам, содержать существенные условия договора и выражать намерение заключить договор с адресатом, если им будет принято предложение. Оферта связывает направившее ее лицо с момента ее получения адресатом. Важное практическое значение имеет срок действия оферты. Он может быть назван в самой оферте или определен законом, что бывает редко. В ином случае оферта действительна в течение срока, нормально необходимого для получения ответа. Такой срок должен определяться с учетом всех обстоятельств, прежде всего, предмета оферты и срока прохождения почты между контрагентами. Когда оферта сделана устно, для заключения договора должно последовать немедленное ее принятие, если делающее оферту лицо не назвало срок для ее принятия. По общему правилу оферта является безотзывной (т.е. не может быть отозвана в течение срока, установленного для ее акцепта), однако иное может быть оговорено в самой оферте или вытекать из существа предложения либо обстановки, в которой оно было

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сделано. Первая ситуация будет иметь место в случае предложения купить скоропортящиеся товары, вторая – при резком колебании экономической конъюнктуры, что делает отзыв оферты объяснимым и справедливым.

Гражданскому праву известно понятие публичной оферты. Реклама и иные предложения, адресованные неопределенному кругу лиц, оферту не создают, а считаются приглашением делать оферты. Однако содержащее все существенные условия договора предложение, из которого усматривается воля его автора заключить договор на указанных условиях с любым, кто отзовется, признается публичной офертой. Публичной офертой надо считать опубликованное в печати приглашение на распродажу товаров с указанием их наименований и цен.

Акцепт

Ответлица,которомуадресованаоферта,осогласиинаеепринятие именуется акцептом. Однако для этого он, во-первых, должен быть полным и безоговорочным согласием и, во-вторых, получен в срок, установленный для акцепта. Молчание акцептом не признается. Акцепт с согласием заключить договор на иных условиях таковым не является и считается новой офертой. Акцепт может быть отозван при условии, что его отзыв получен ранее или одновременно с первоначально направленным акцептом. Если акцепт поступил после установленного для него срока, необходимо различать две ситуации с разными правовыми последствиями. Когда своевременно отправленный ответ получен с опозданием (например, по вине почты или оферента, неправильно указавшего свой адрес), акцепт не считается опоздавшим, если оферент немедленно не уведомит другую сторону о получении акцепта с опозданием. В случаях, когда акцепт по вине его отправителя был сделан с опозданием, он считается состоявшимся, если оферент немедленно сообщит о принятии им опоздавшего акцепта. Эти два правила практически оправданны и создают условия для заключения договора при несвоевременном получении акцепта.

Садиков О. Н. «Гражданское право»

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XV.  Review Questions

Define the word “contract” and its main elements. What kinds of contract do you know?

Give definitions of an express contract.

Where are the terms of an implied contract inferred from? Give an example.

What is the difference between a unilateral and bilateral contract? When is the time of performance of an executory and executed

contracts?

What basic requirements does an unenforceable contract meet? Are there such contracts, in which a party may either enforce

or get out of it?

What are the most common formal contracts today? Are informal contracts “simple”?

What is the usual goal of contracting parties?

What requirements must a contract for an exchange of values meet?

What makes a contract binding? What is a breach of the contract?

Are there any term limits for discharging contractual obligations? Why is Contract Law so important?

Speaking

Prepare a brief talk on an aspect of contract requirements in your jurisdiction. Make use of repetition and paraphrasing to reinforce important ideas and make them easier for your listener to understand and remember. You should structure your talk in three distinct sections and give a brief overview of the points you will cover.

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TEST

1.  Fill in the missing words.

1)  … … – an insurance agreement that provides cover against loss or damage caused by a chance event;

2)  ... – taking or agreeing to take something offered;

3)  … ... – a contract where the people or groups involved have done the things that they agreed to do;

4)  … … – a contract which states clearly what has been agreed; 5)  ... – a statement that you are willing to give someone some-

thing or do something for them;

6)  ……–acontractthatisnotspecificallystatedorwrittendown; 7)  … … – a contract in which only one of the parties has

to do something, which is therefore not legally a proper contract; 8)  … – a person or organization that offers to buy something; 9)  … … – a contract that can be ended because one of the people

or groups involved has done something unfair;

10)  ... – something of value given by one person or group signing a contract in exchange for something given by the other;

11)  … … – a contract that is not recognized by a law court because it is illegal;

12)  ... – a person or organization to whom something is offered for sale;

13)  ... – something of value given by one person or group signing a contract in exchange for something given by the other;

14)  ... – money that a court orders someone to pay to someone else for harming them or their property, or causing them financial loss;

15)  … … – a contract between two people or groups. II.

2.  Fill in the correct prepositions.

1)  to comply … a rule

2)  to trade … exchange for smth

3)  offer … sale

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4)  to be held liable ... damages

5)  to be bound ... the terms

6)  to refrain ... doing something

7)  protection ... the law

8)  to enter ... an agreement

9)  to be concerned ... smth

10)  to rely ... smth I

3.  Translate the article from the Unites Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods into Russian.

Article 18

1) Astatement made by or other conduct of the offeree indicating assent to an offer is an acceptance. Silence or inactivity does not in itself amount to acceptance.

2) An acceptance of an offer becomes effective at the moment the indication of assent reaches the offeror.An acceptance is not effective if the indication of assent does not reach the offeror within the time he has fixed or, if no time is fixed, within a reasonable time, due account being taken of the circumstances of the transaction, including the rapidity of the means of communication employed by the offeror. An oral offer must be accepted immediately unless the circumstances indicate otherwise.

4.  Translate the article from the Unites Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods into English.

Статья 14

1)  Предложение о заключении договора, адресованное одному или нескольким конкретным лицам, является офертой, если оно достаточно определено и выражает намерение оферента считать себя связанным в случае акцепта. Предложение является достаточно определенным, если в нем обозначен товар и прямо или

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косвенно устанавливаются количество и цена либо предусматривается порядок их определения.

2)  Предложение, адресованное неопределенному кругу лиц, рассматривается лишь как приглашение делать оферты, если только иное прямо не указано лицом, сделавшим такое предложение.

5.  What do you know about Contracts? Choose the right answer.

1.The requirements for a contract in Anglo-American law are that there be … .

a)  an offer and acceptance

b)  an offer, acceptance and consideration c)  an acceptance and consideration

2.  … are intended to compensate the nonbreaching party for the actual damages suffered.

a)  Remote damages b)  Punitive damages

c)  Compensatory damages

3.… imposes no legal rights or obligations upon the parties and is not enforceable by a court.

a) Avoidable contract b) An aleatory contract c) Avoid contract

4.Courts often refuse to enforce ... on the grounds that a true meeting of the minds never existed, or that there was no acceptance of the offer because the purchaser actually had no choice in the bargain.

a)  aleatory contracts b)  executory contracts c)  adhesion contracts

5.Oral contracts are ... .

a)  void

b)  enforceable

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6. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:

1.  Договор может быть обязательным для одной стороны по договору, но не для другой.

2.  Термин “договор” предполагает ответственность, которая является результатом добровольной договоренности одного лица с другим.

3.  Исполненный договор – это договор, цель которого достигается сразу же.

4.  Договор, лишенный всякой законной силы, является ничтожным.

5.  Если обоюдное соглашение противоречит закону или общественным интересам, оно является незаконным.

6.  Оспоримый договор может быть расторгнут или подтвержден в зависимости от желания сторон.

7.  Договор, законный по своей сути, но наличие которого нельзя доказать в суде, называется договором, не имеющим исковой силы.

8.  Если суд не знает, в чем заключается соглашение, он не может придать такому соглашению исковую силу.

9.  Простой договор часто называют устным договором вне зависимости от того, заключен ли он в письменной или устной форме.

10.  Некоторые договоры не имеют исковой силы, если не заключены в письменной форме.

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