Чтение литературы по специальности на английском языке. Теория и практика информационной обработки текста. Учебное пособие для студентов факультета эк

ity and as a subgroup, the members who left early undermined the authority of the board and of the chairman. When the board finally came to grips with what it was doing, some leaving and others not talking about it, the realization strengthened both the board and the chairman.

A small proportion of boards do pay explicit attention to the board as a group and to the board-management relationship. Boards that do this work develop and revise as necessary a mission statement for the board as a group, write and rewrite job descriptions for directors, and annually assess individual directors’ performance. The responsibility for these activities formally goes to a committee – often the nominating committee. According to the individually based model, the role of the nominating committee is to select new directors and to make recommendations about the compensation of board members.

In addition to these activities, the expanded role of this committee includes consulting with the chairperson about the design and conduct of board meetings, periodically eliciting feedback from directors about their perceptions of board meetings, helping to plan annual retreats, and establishing mission statements for each board committee. The committee does all this in collaboration with the board chairperson. A committee with this array of duties may be named the committee on directors or board affairs, rather than simply the nominating committee.

When a board decides to give this much effort to managing its own group dynamics, the entire constellation of relationships among directors, and between management and the board, changes. It may become normal practice, for example, for a board to take the last five or ten minutes of each meeting to critique the session. This gives the chairperson and any others who played key roles rapid feedback about the effects of their actions.

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ГЛАВА 4. КОМПРЕССИЯ ТЕКСТА КАК СПОСОБ

ФИКСАЦИИ И ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЯ ИНФОРМАЦИИ В КОНДЕНСИРОВАННОМ ВИДЕ

В современном обществе, когда все мы подвергаемся постоянно возрастающему потоку информации, возникает естественная необходимость в силу дефицита времени обращаться не к первоисточникам, а к компрессионным текстам. Под компрессионным текстом понимается любой вторичный источник информации, содержащий в себе сжатое, краткое изложение основного содержания первичного источника. Компрессия текста достигается путем опущения избыточных элементов высказывания, а также путем использования более компактных конструкций.

Реферирование является неотъемлемой частью работы с первоисточниками. Всенаучныеработникивтойилиинойформе используют его. Отсюда прямой вывод – чем квалифицированнее специалист владеет методами научного реферирования текста, тем большими информационно-креативными возможностями он обладает.

4.1.Разновидности компрессии текста

Ккомпрессионным текстам могут быть отнесены обзоры,

рефераты, тезисы, развернутыепланы, аннотацииирецензии.

Основным назначением реферата является оперативное распространение важнейшей научно-технической информации в максимально сжатом виде, ее использование читателями различных категорий. Рефераты делятся на: информативные, то есть рефераты-конспекты (précis) и индикативные, то есть рефераты-резюме (summary, abstract). Первые достаточно полно излагают все основные положения, доказательства и выводы. Вторые перечисляют лишь главные положения и выводы по ним без изложения доказательств. Оба вида рефератов могут быть монографическими, составленными на основании одного источника; сводными, излагающими содержание нескольких источников, объединенных общей темой, и обзорными, излага-

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ющими результат обзора многих источников по определенной тематике.

Для зарубежной литературы характерна пестрота терминов (чаще всего это abstract, или summary), обозначающих понятия «реферат-резюме» и «аннотация», и, фактически, различия между ними не делается.

Разновидностью реферата является реферативный обзор. Для реферативного обзора отбирается ряд источников (первичных документов), представляющих научно-информационный интерес для определенного круга лиц. Реферативный обзор обычно не содержит критики материала, но материал при этом желательно отбирать в границах определенной темы, тогда информационная емкость обзора резко возрастает при его незначительном объеме. Если обзор готовится для смежных специалистов, в обзоре могут быть высказаны некоторые рекомендации по степени важности того или иного источника. Реферативный обзор литературы по теме является неотъемлемой составной частью большинства научных исследований.

К реферативному виду деятельности можно отнести и так называемый реферативный перевод, то есть довольно подробное изложение текста первоисточника на другом языке со значительным сокращением избыточной информации.

Ещеоднойразновидностьюкомпрессиитекстаявляетсярецензия. Рецензия не ставит своей целью изложение рецензируемого материала. Пересказ рецензируемого текста обычно проводится в таких объемах, которые рецензенту необходимы для поддержания диалога с автором рецензируемого труда. Основное в рецензии – это полемика с автором.

4.2. Последовательность работы над реферируемым материалом

1. Прочитайте введение и оцените сферу научных интересов автора. Затем прочитайте последовательно каждую главу абзац за абзацем.

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2.Выпишите заголовок реферируемой работы с указанием фамилий и инициалов ее автора (авторов) и выходных данных книги (журнала).

3.Просмотрите текст и ответьте на вопрос: о чем он? Так определяется основная тема текста.

4.Пронумеруйте абзацы текста. Проанализируйте смысловые связи между группами тематически связанных предложений, абзацами и связками абзацев.

5.Выберите ключевые фрагменты и выпишите их в той же последовательности, в которой они встретились в оригинале, помечая номера абзацев.

6.Проанализируйте тематическую соотнесенность этих фрагментов, выделите подтемы текста и постройте схему иерархической структуры текста, то есть его логическую схему.

7.Сформулируйтепунктылогическогопланатекстав соответствии с этой схемой.

8.На материале логического плана и развивающих его тезисов (ключевых фрагментов) составьте текст реферата или аннотации. При этом следует использовать средства, необходимые для сокращения и трансформации текста: обобщения, умозаключения, абстрагирование, а также ввести переходные элементы и связочные средства, которых потребует логика изложения в этом тексте.

В зависимости от цели реферируемый материал оформляется либо в виде реферата-конспекта, либо в виде рефератарезюме (аннотации). Объем аннотации часто зависит от значимости источника, но, как правило, не превышает 0,5 страницы. При написании аннотации широко используются языковые клише, рекомендуется использовать полные предложения, мета-язык, то есть когда автор говорит о собственном тексте

(the paper discusses…, the article draws attention to…) Для опи-

сания результатов исследования следует использовать преимущественно Past Simple, использовать пассивные конструкции. Обычно не используют отрицательные предложения, сокращения, профессиональный жаргон и символы.

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Структура реферата-конспекта

1.Предметная рубрика: наименование области или раздела знаний, к которым относится реферируемый документ.

2.Тема: более узкая – предметная отнесенность источника или ряда источников.

3.Выходные данные источника или совокупности источников на иностранном и русском языках: фамилия и инициалы автора, заглавие, издательство, место, год издания (для журнала – название и номер).

4.Главная мысль, идея реферируемого материала: реферат сжато формулирует главную мысль, не внося в нее своих комментариев.

5.Изложение содержания: содержание реферируемого материала излагается в последовательности, в которой он приводится в источнике.

6.Комментарий, примечание референта: это чаще всего указание адресата, на которого рассчитан реферируемый материал.

Структура аннотации

1.Предметная рубрика.

2.Тема.

3.Выходные данные источника.

4.Сжатая характеристика материала .

5.Критическая оценка первоисточника.

Примеры аннотаций (рефератов-резюме) приведены ниже.

Статья 1 – Тhe New Economic Powers (NEPs) Leadership

Opportunities Post-Crisis

Предметная рубрика: World Economics.

Тема: Developing Economies.

Выходные данные источника: Leipziger, D., O’Boyle, W. The New Economic Powers (NEPs) Leadership Opportunities PostCrisis // The Journal of Current Economic Analysis and Policy. – 2009. – Volume 10. – № 3. – Pp. 43–80.

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In the wake of the global financial and economic crises, much attention has been focused on large developing economies, particularly the BRICs, and their role in the new economic landscape. Focusing on trends in demographics and output, the emergence of the BRICs crystallised the notion that there was a group of up-and- coming economies towards which global attention was shifting. Over time, however, the term has transcended purely economic considerations – it is an acknowledgement that large emerging economies will play a more important role on the world political stage as well. While the BRICs are major protagonists, they are not completely representative of this global shift – the field of potential global players is undoubtedly larger. This paper examines a group of ten countries that will play an important role in global economics and politics, focusing on the current state of their engagement in the international system, and their representation in the global financial architecture. A critical look at the roles and responsibilities of new actors is particularly important in the current environment as the crisis presents emerging powers with an unprecedented opportunity to increase their level of engagement in both economic and political spheres, as well as to play leadership roles in systemically important initiatives

Статья 2 – Reforming IMF Conditionality From “Streamlining” to “Major Overhaul”

Предметная рубрика: World Economics.

Тема: International Finance.

Выходные данные: Bird, G. // The Journal of Current Economic Analysis and Policy. – 2009. – Volume 10. – № 3. – Pp. 81–104.

As it has for many years, International Monetary Fund conditionality is currently receiving much attention in the context of the global financial crisis. At the beginning of the 2000s the Fund introduced a policy of ‘streamlining’ intended to reduce the amount of conditionality and refocus it, with a view to increasing country ownership and improving programme implementation. This article uses the results of a report by the IMF’s Independent Evaluation Office into structural conditionality to assess the extent to which

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the initiative delivered on its promises. More significant seem to be the recent changes associated with the global crisis. The article discusses the evolution of conditionality, and assesses the current situation and the prospects for the future.

Статья3 – The Secret of Canadian Banking: Common Sense?

Предметная рубрика: World Economics.

Тема: International Finance.

Выходные данные: Booth, L. // The Journal of Current Economic Analysis and Policy. – 2009. – Volume 10. – Number 3. – Pp. 1–18.

This article looks at the basic reasons why the Canadian banking system was recently judged by the World Economic Forum to be the soundest in the world. It does so by first examining the basic functions of a financial system and what Canadian banks are allowed to do as intermediaries within that system. It then considers the market structure of Canadian banking and the role of the Canadian government in regulating the financial system. It finishes with a discussion of the four basic management areas of any financial institution: liquidity management, asset management, liability management and capital management. On all dimensions the Canadian banks seem to be conservatively managed, well regulated and operating in a benign economic environment without obvious systemic risks, mainly due to the absence of a competing “parallel” intermediation system as exists in the United States.

Практические задания

Задание 23

1.Прочитайте текст.

2.Используя алгоритм, составьте реферат-конспект данного текста.

Casey, T., Dustmann, C. Immigrants’ Identity, Economic Outcomes and the Transmission of Identity across Generations // The Economic Journal. – Volume 120. – February. – Pp. 31–51.

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Immigrants’ Identity, Economic Outcomes and the Transmission of Identity across Generations

Teresa Casey and Christian Dustmann

In this article we address three issues relating to immigrants’ identity, measured as the feeling of belonging to particular ethnic groups. We study the formation of identity with home and host countries. We investigate how identity with either country relates to immigrants’ and their children’s labour market outcomes. Finally, we analyse the intergenerational transmission of identity. Our analysis is based on a unique longitudinal dataset on immigrants and their children. We find that identity with either country is only weakly related to labour market outcomes. However, there is strong intergenerational transmission of identity from one generation to the next.

Do immigrants identify with the culture, values and beliefs of the country which they have chosen as their new home, or with beliefs and values of their origin country? Do immigrants who express a strong identity with the host country perform better in the labour market than immigrants who do not? And is ethnic minority identity and national identity transferred from one generation to the next through parental influence? These are the questions we address in this article.

In recent years these questions have raised a lot of interest. Faced with growing inflows of immigrants from countries with very different ethnic and cultural compositions, identity’ became one of the most recent additions to the public debate on immigration and minority related issues. The British Government in a recent policy document discussing future reforms of the citizenship law, proposed new English language requirements as well as the requirement to join in with ‘…the British way of life…’ for migrants who want to obtain British citizenship and stressed the importance of ‘…putting British values at the heart of the system’ (Home Office, 2008). These objectives were also reflected in a recent review of citizenship commissioned by the British Prime Minister which stated that the ‘…challenge is to renew our shared sense of belonging and take steps to engage those who do not share it’ (Goldsmith, 2008, p. 88).

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These proposals are mirrored by a renewed debate about identity in many countries in Europe – e.g. France, Germany, Denmark and also in the US and Australia. In Germany, a new citizenship test is proving very controversial as it will force the children of immigrants to choose between their home and German nationalities, creating a conflict of identity for many. France also passed a controversial new immigration bill last year which included an examination for prospective immigrants on French values. Similarly, Denmark has in the last year introduced a citizenship test based on Danish society, culture and history. Migrants seeking Australian citizenship must have knowledge of English and it is also ‘…expected that they embrace Australian values and integrate into the Australian society’ (Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2009). In the US, a redesigned citizenship test comes into operation this year where the emphasis is on encouraging applicants to ‘…to learn and identify with the basic values we all share as Americans’ (US Citizenship and Immigration Service, 2008). Clearly then, identity is a new facet of immigration policy.

The latest literature in economics has addressed issues of identity, both theoretically (Akerlof and Kranton, 2000; Bison et al., 2006; Battu et al., 2007) as well as empirically (Mason, 2004; Pendakur and Pendakur, 2005; Nekby and Rodin, 2007; Manning and Roy, 2010; Constant and Zimmermann, 2008; Battu and Zenou, 2010). Akerlof and Kranton (2000) point out several reasons why the concept of identity is important for economic analysis. Identity may explain behaviour that seems detrimental to economic success. Identity may create externalities for others and provoke reactions that affect individuals’ own payoffs. Identity may change preferences, with potential consequences for economic outcomes. And finally, as identity affects economic behaviour, identity choice may have important consequences for economic well-being.

The public debate on “identity” and its consequences mirrors some of these points. There is a strong interest in whether the choice of a particular identity creates negative externalities for the population in the receiving country. The articles by Manning and Roy (2010) and Battu and Zenou (2010) in this issue study some of these aspects.

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An important empirical aspect is whether the choice of an identity that deviates from that of the majority population affects the individual’s economic outcomes. In the first part of this article, it is this question that we address. We establish the relationship between a particular measure of ethnic minority identity (the feeling of belonging to a particular ethnic group or origin country) and economic outcomes. Our findings cannot be interpreted as causal; however, we argue that it is not implausible that the dominant mechanism leading to biased estimates creates an upward bias, which allows interpretation of estimates as bounds1. Nekby and Rodin (2007) examine the consequences of identity for labour market outcomes in Sweden and interpret their results in a similar way, as do Pendakur and Pendakur (2005) when looking at the relationship between ethnic minority identity and the use of informal networks in finding a job and also the relationship with occupation quality.

A further important question is where identity originates. Two main theoretical approaches have been used in most of the psychological research on ethnic identity: social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986) and developmental theory (Erikson, 1968). Social identity theory focuses on adults and self-esteem issues related to ethnic identity, while the development theory suggests that ethnic identity varies with age from early adolescence and acculturation (behaviours, attitudes and values which may change when in a new culture) influences the ethnic identity ultimately achieved through this process of development. Within the concept of the development

1 In an earlier paper, Dustmann (1996) explains measures of national identity of immigrants in Germany, and how these are related to earnings. Dustmann points out that the direction of causality is difficult to address in any such analysis. In the framework of Akerlof and Kranton (2000), identity is a part of individuals’ utility function and related among others to the extent to which actions correspond to prescribed behavior of the assigned category. Important here is that the “category” in which the individual falls can be changed or chosen by the individual. This makes the empirical analysis of linking identity measures to economic outcomes difficult; in the absence of randomisation of individuals into clearly defined categories of “identity”, the relationship to economic outcomes is not identifiable in a causal manner.

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