Чтение литературы по специальности на английском языке. Теория и практика информационной обработки текста. Учебное пособие для студентов факультета эк

theory, socio-cognitive theories of ethnic identity development suggest that this can occur before adolescence (Akiba et al., 2004; Marks et al., 2007), or it may also happen very early in life. Research by Weiland and Coughlin (1979) suggests that children as young as three or four begin developing a sense of ethnic identity. It is apparent therefore, that parents – both in the family home and through their ethnic socialisation practices – play a formative role in the development of children’s ethnic identity in their early years, a role that is acknowledged in the child developmental psychology literature (Marks et al., 2007; Phinney et al., 2001; GarcΊa Coll et al., 1996).

Within the acculturation concept of ethnic identity, the crosscultural psychological literature indicates that ethnic identity can be thought of in terms of two alternative models (Phinney, 1990) – a bipolar, linear model where strong ethnic identity implies a weak sense of the majority identity (“oppositional identities”) or a two dimensional model where the relationship between ethnic identity and the majority identity may be independent1. Therefore, it is not unusual that children of immigrants may have a strong identity with both the host and the home country. Marks et al. (2007, p.510) report findings which confirmed “bi-directional theories of identity development” in their study of ethnic identity development amongst the children of immigrants. But it is also possible that children of immigrants may develop a strong ethnic minority identity, the corollary being a weak sense of identity with the host country.

In the second part of the article, we address this particular aspect of the formation of identity in second generation immigrant populations: parental influence and background. We address the question to what extent “identity” in the parent generation of immigrants transmits to the next generation. The uniqueness of our data, which is a long panel that oversamples individuals with immigrant backgrounds and contains repeated information for both parents and their children on ethnic group identity, allows us to investigate this question.

1 This bipolar model incorporates the concept of “oppositional identities” which implies that an individual chooses between diametrically opposed identities.

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The structure of the article is as follows. In the next Section, we discuss the intergenerational transmission of identity, outlining a theoretical model and our empirical strategy. Section 2 describes our data, some descriptive characteristics of the sample that we use, and examines the determinants of identity and how it changes with time spent in the host country. We analyse the association between both ethnic group identities and labour market outcomes in Section 3. Section 4 presents the results of the intergenerational transmission of identity and examines how this differs between fathers and mothers, sons and daughters. We discuss our findings and conclude in Section 5.

Задание 24

24.1.Прочитайте текст.

24.2.Напишите аннотацию из 4–6 предложений, используя лексико-синтаксические клише.

UK Economy “Faces Crisis” Warns Former IMF Economist

The UK should be seen in the same category of countries as Greece and Spain, who are facing severe debt problems, a leading economist has said.

Ex-IMF chief economist Simon Johnson, also described the G7 group of leading economies as “fundamentally useless”. His comments to the BBC came as G7 finance ministers discussed the growing crisis in some Eurozone nations. Treasury sources said all three major credit-rating agencies had reaffirmed the UK’s triple A credit status. One of the major concerns about a country having large budget deficits is that it cannot spend sufficiently to boost its economy. Although the UK did officially come out of recession in the fourth quarter of 2009 – ending six consecutive quarters of economic decline - the growth was just 0.1%, much less than expected. ‘It is right that borrowing has been allowed to rise so that the government has been able to protect the economy from the global downturn’, a Treasury spokesman said. ‘But, supporting the economy through to recovery goes hand-in-hand with steps to rebuild fiscal strength

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once recovery is firmly established. That is why the government has set out a clear plan to halve the deficit over the next four years, while protecting the frontline services that people depend on’.

Action needed

Last week the Euro hit a seven-month low against the dollar, as traders worried that Greece’s government debt problems could spread to other European countries such as Spain and Portugal. Stock markets have seen big falls too, as investors studied the countries’ spiralling deficits and questioned their commitment and ability to bring them down. Mr Johnson has said that the UK should be added to those countries, whose government debt ratings have come under serious pressure. ‘The financial markets are taking a long hard look at the fiscal accounts of all these countries and they don’t like what they see’, he said. ‘Now Greece is an extreme example – there I think you can see that it’s going to get very messy very quickly – but unfortunately the budget situation in these other countries is also weak. And I have to add the UK to this list. Unless you can persuade the markets that you’re really going to bring the budget under control within the foreseeable future and you’re going to have some credible actions – and you’re going to have to do some persuading – you’re going to have big trouble’.

“No awareness”

Mr Johnson also called the G7 a “fundamentally useless organization” for not reacting quick enough to the problem and for remaining in an out-of-date mindset. ‘The G7 countries are completely asleep at the wheel. I looked at the information they put out from their meeting I was absolutely shocked’, he said. ‘They seem to show no awareness at all that much of Europe is facing a serious crisis and it’s not limited to Spain, Greece and Portugal, it’s also going to include Ireland. I think Italy is also very much in the line of fire. There’s a very serious crisis inside the Eurozone’. His damning critique of the G7 came only hours after the very last meeting of its finance ministers at which the Europeans had to reassure their counterparts from the US, Canada and Japan over the deteriorating state of the public finances in some Eurozone countries.

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At the gathering, it was agreed not to involve the IMF and to leave the matter to the European Union. UK chancellor Alistair Darling, who was at the meeting in northern Canada, said the world was set for a steady but slow recovery and that governments’ stimulus packages should remain in place until the recovery was assured. ‘The important thing is that we all are absolutely committed to maintaining the support for our economies until we make sure we have recovery established, and then to make sure we can chart a way to ensure that we got sound, long-term growth in the future’, he said. ‘In the last 18 months, we’ve come through an extremely turbulent period. But I think we can be confident, although we remain cautious, that we are on the right path, provided we see that through’. But his words were brushed aside by the former IMF chief economist, who said that he had not seen any strong EU leaders stepping up and acting on the issue. He said that many of them were still in the mindset of a few months ago – and that they hadn’t realised that sentiment in financial markets had changed. The pressure on the EU to act will be brought into sharp focus this week when the new President of the European Council Herman von Rompuy chairs a special economic summit in Brussels at which the public finances of Greece, Spain and Portugal will be discussed.

Analysis

Joe Lynam, BBC Business Correspondent

Simon Johnson may no longer speak explicitly for the IMF but as its former chief economist, his words will carry a lot of weight. That he should lump the world’s fifth largest economy into the same wretched grouping as Portugal, Greece and Spain seems almost as unfair as their collective acronym PIGS. Unlike those Mediterranean countries, Britain continues to enjoy the highest rating for its government debt (gilts) on the international money market – though critics would say that owes more to a legacy of past good behaviour than a reflection of its current status as the most heavily overdrawn country in the G7.

From BBC News

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Задание 25

25.1.Прочитайте текст.

25.2.Напишите аннотацию из 4–6 предложений.

The World’s Big Economies Were All Hit by the Recession. Now the Field Is Spreading

AYEAR ago almost every economy in the world was being walloped. The degree of pain varied. In rich countries output plunged; in China and some other emerging economies growth slowed sharply. But the slump was as striking for its synchronicity as its severity.

The opposite seems true of the recovery. China’s rebound began earliest and has been the most spectacular. America’s economy began growing in the middle of 2009 and seems to have accelerated sharply in the final months of the year. Initial GDP estimates for the fourth quarter are due on January 29th, and many analysts expect annualised GDP growth to have shot up to 5,5% or more. News from the euro zone and Japan is rather gloomier. Germany emerged from recession before America, but its number-crunchers recently suggested that growth fell back to zero in the fourth quarter. The Japanese recovery also seems to be fading.

Shifting growth patterns could have big consequences for asset prices. Sustained strength in emerging economies, for instance, could push up commodity prices further, while a rapid rebound in America’s economy relative to Europe’s could strengthen the dollar more against the euro. So a lot rides on what is driving the divergence, and whether it lasts.

In America soaring GDP growth is likely to be a one-quarter wonder, driven by a rebuilding of firms’ shrivelled inventories. Output growth will slow in 2010 – the question is by how much. Optimists argue that every deep post-war recession has been followed by a vigorous recovery and that growth will be well above its trend rate in 2010. But a gloomier outcome seems all too plausible. There are few signs of job growth. Much household-debt reduction still lies ahead. And there is the risk of a correction in stock markets.

But even a sluggish American recovery will outpace other big rich economies. The euro zone faces two different but equally pain-

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ful problems. Former bubble economies such as Spain and Ireland are suffering a painful hangover. Germany, like Japan, is bedevilled by chronically weak domestic demand. Consumers are reluctant to spend and, so far, buoyant export growth has not incited firms to invest, despite hopes to the contrary.

The degree to which America outperforms the others will depend, in large part, on whether, and how, different countries tighten monetary and fiscal policy. There is a lot of talk about fiscal discipline within the euro zone, not least because financial markets are punishing Europe’s peripheral economies for their profligacy. Greece this month announced an unprecedented fiscal squeeze over the next three years. But Greece makes up only 3% of euro-area GDP, and rapid fiscal consolidation is much less likely in the big economies. The junior partner in Germany’s coalition government is pushing for tax cuts in 2011; France is railing loudly against the idea of cutting its deficit any time soon.

America’s budget outlook is rather more uncertain, especially in the light of the Republicans’ unexpected Senate victory in Massachusetts. The current stimulus package will stop boosting GDP growth by midyear. Thanks to the requirement that they balance their budgets, states are furiously cutting spending. Although the House of Representatives has passed an additional $150 billionworth of job-boosting stimulus, the Senate has not yet done so. And if Congress does nothing, the Bush-era tax cuts expire at the end of the year. That seems unlikely, but political gridlock could cause America’s fiscal boost to fade unexpectedly sharply.

Policy decisions will also influence the relative strength of the recoveries in the emerging economies versus the rich world. Though China’s private demand strengthened a lot in the second half of 2009, growth is still largely driven by a government-directed lending boom. China’s short-term prospects thus depend on how quickly the government damps down the lending frenzy. Fears of tighter credit in China weighed on stock markets this week but the signs still point to very gradual tightening – and scant dampening of growth – in China and the rest of the emerging world.

Powerful structural factors will continue to reinforce the relative strength of the emerging world. Jonathan Anderson of UBS

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points out that even if you exclude China and India, emerging economies grew some four percentage points faster than rich economies during the recession, about the same growth gap that existed before the crisis. Some emerging economies, especially those that relied on foreign debt finance, will face prolonged problems. The World Bank argues in a new report that tighter financial conditions, thanks to tougher regulation and higher risk aversion, could reduce developing countries’ trend growth by 0,2-0,7 percentage points over the next five to seven years. Even so, the hit to potential growth in the rich world is likely to be bigger.

Persistent relative strength in emerging economies, especially China, suggests that commodity prices will stay stable or firm. It also means their currencies should rise against the dollar, though the pace will depend, more than anything, on China’s decisions about the yuan. Within the rich world, the growing transatlantic growth divide has helped buoy the dollar versus the euro: it is up by more than 5% from its lows in November. Will that rally continue? The answer depends as much on the likely policy mix as today’s growth differentials. Other things being equal, tighter fiscal policy suggests loose monetary policy for longer and a weaker currency. So relative fiscal discipline in America would push the dollar down, and vice versa.

A multi-speed recovery could also affect imbalances between countries’ current-account surpluses and deficits. America’s cur- rent-account deficit and China’s current-account surplus have both halved from their peaks as a result of the crisis, to around 3% and 6% of GDP respectively. Whether that reduction continues depends first on oil prices and second on the pattern of global demand. Imbalances will only stay low as the global economy recovers if surplus economies, especially China but also countries like Germany and Japan, rely on domestic demand while the big borrowers, especially America, cut their budget deficits and save more. Economies are now growing at different rates. They must also grow in different ways.

Jan 21st 2010 WASHINGTON, DC From The Economist print edition

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Задание 26

26.1.Прочитайте текст.

26.2.Напишите аннотацию из 4–6 предложений.

Some Developing Economies Are Rich but Crude, while Others Are Poor but Sophisticated

ONCE a sleepy fishing port, the industrial city of Yanbu, on Saudi Arabia’s Red Sea coast, is now a monument to the country’s efforts to diversify its economy. Its petrochemical plant is a sprawling palace of pipes. Propane tanks and cracking towers shimmer in the heat like domes and minarets. The facility’s engineers live with their families nearby in a leafy enclave, their shady balconies reminiscent of the traditional rowshan windows of old Jeddah. At the local mall, shoppers can buy any flavour of Holsten Pils they like (strawberry, apple, pomegranate), so long as it is non-alcoholic.

Like many developing countries, SaudiArabia has long struggled to wean itself off its dependence on a handful of commodities, in this case oil. Yanbu was built by a royal commission, set up in 1975 as part of a concerted effort to move the Saudi economy beyond crude into downstream industries, such as refined petroleum and petrochemicals. The policy has enjoyed some success: Saudi petrochemical exports exceeded $14 billion in 2008. The kingdom is more ambivalent about some of its other forays. It is, for example, now phasing out efforts to grow wheat in the desert.

Saudi Arabia’s obsession with its industrial mix is not shared by most development economists. They traditionally judge the success of an economy by the volume, not the variety, of output per head. Two exceptions are Ricardo Hausmann of Harvard and his colleague, Cesar Hidalgo, a physicist. In a series of papers with various collaborators, they have explored the composition, as well as the quantity, of production, and have taken into account what countries produce, as well as how much.

Just as economies differ in size, the two authors show, they also vary in complexity. Some are eclectic, making a wide range of products. Others are esoteric, producing idiosyncratic goods that few other countries can make. The authors have created a measure of

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the sophistication of an economy based on two criteria. How many products does a country export successfully? And how many other countries also export those products? Sophisticated economies, by the pair’s definition, export a large variety of “exclusive” products that few other countries can make.

Income and sophistication tend to rise in tandem, as you would expect. But some economies are surprisingly sophisticated, given their level of income. They tend to grow quickly, perhaps because they have mastered industries that are mostly the preserve of richer, and therefore costlier, rivals. Other economies, by contrast, are surprisingly crude, given their prosperity. Saudi Arabia, for example, ranks below the Philippines and Indonesia in sophistication, despite having a higher income per head.

In its recent efforts to diversify, Saudi Arabia has placed less faith in royal commissions and more in entrepreneurs. It is busy cutting red tape and streamlining procedures in a bid to become one of the world’s ten most “competitive” economies by 2010, as ranked by the World Economic Forum and the World Bank’s “Doing Business” league tables. Saudi Arabia hopes that the private sector, newly unencumbered, will sniff out fresh opportunities, diversifying the economy in response to market signals rather than royal decrees. The work of Messrs Hausmann and Hidalgo, however, suggests that the kingdom’s entrepreneurs have their work cut out for them. As they point out, economies find it easier to master new products that are similar to ones they already make. It is easier to graduate from assembling toys to assembling televisions than to jump from textiles to laptops.

The two authors measure the proximity of one product to another based on the probability that a country makes both. In other words, if an economy that makes T-shirts is also likely to make bedsheets, the authors infer that T-shirts and bedsheets are closely related. They have displayed their results on an ingenious map of the industrial landscape, in which similar products cluster tightly together and unrelated products stand apart.

The territory their map reveals is far from uniform. It resembles woodland, in which isolated knots of trees surround a few dense thickets of forest. An economy that already exports a few products in

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the thickest clusters can diversify quickly, hopping from one closely related product to the next. Saudi Arabia, by contrast, is stranded on one of those lonely clumps of products that seem only distantly related to anything else.

To cross these gaps, entrepreneurs need help. But royal commissions are not the answer. In work with Dani Rodrik of Harvard and Charles Sabel of Columbia University, Mr. Hausmann argues that governments should emulate venture funds, backing new enterprises in the hope that one will make the leap into a more densely forested area. They should spread their bets widely, monitor progress closely, and cut losses promptly.

Do something different

Two hours’ drive down the coast from Yanbu, Saudi Arabia’s latest experiment in diversification is in progress. The King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC) was conceived by the Saudi government. But it is supposed to be built, run and paid for by the private sector. Taking the lead is Emaar.E.C, the local offshoot of a big Dubai developer, which raised 2.55 billion riyals ($680m) on the Saudi stock market in 2006.

In addition to a port, Emaar.E.C plans resorts, residences, schools and a financial centre. But it has left vast tracts of the site empty for other companies to fill, in the hope of attracting a cluster of light industries. Progress is slow. According to Reuters, Emaar.E.C received a loan of about 5 billion riyals from the government last month to stop it falling further behind on the project. What distinguishes a good diversification strategy, Messrs Hausmann, Rodrik and Sabel argue, is not the ability to pick winners; it is the guts to let losers go. But it is not easy to remain aloof from a city that bears the king’s name.

Feb 4th 2010 From The Economist print edition

Задание 27

27.1.Прочитайте текст.

27.2.Напишите аннотацию из 4–6 предложений.

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