Патологическая физиология теоретический курс = Pathological physiology theoretical course. Учебное пособие
.pdfTOPIC 2.
GENERAL ETIOLOGY
Self-training and knowledge control tasks
1. Concepts of the etiology of disease. 2. Classification of etiological factors that can cause disease. 3. The role of the cause in the onset of the disease. 4. External conditions, aggravating or limiting the effect of pathogenic factors on the animal organism. 5. Criticism of idealistic ideas (monokausalism, constitutionalism, conditionalism etc.) in etiology. 6. The effect of domestication on the occurrence of diseases in animals. 7. Mechanical factors as causes of disease. 8. Physical factors as causes of disease. 9. Chemical factors as causes of diseases. 10. Biological factors as causes of diseases.
Tasks
1.In the adapted, poorly lit room, where the calves were kept without leash, there were high, relative humidity, weak air exchange, an increased concentration of carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide. The litter was not cleaned in time. The animals were kept dull, on an unbalanced and insufficient caloric intake. In early spring, the animals showed signs of trichophytosis. By laboratory test the diagnosis was confirmed. What was the cause of ringworm in calves? What is meant by the etiology of the disease?
2.To date, many nosological units, which seemed like one disease, are divided into a number of new ones. For example, the range of diseases entering into the concept of "indigestion" is narrowing more and more. A number of non-communicable and infectious diseases of newborn calves, caused, for example, by rotaand coronaviruses of diarrhea, by other viruses, are isolated into special nosological forms. Probably, soon a single concept about such diseases as cancer, hemorrhagic diathesis etc. will disappear
61
completely. How can this be explained from the point of view of the etiology of diseases?
TOPIC 3.
GENERAL PATHOGENESIS
Self-training and knowledge control tasks
1. The concept of "pathogenesis." 2. Causal relationships in the genesis of the disease. 3. The main link of pathogenesis. 4. Local and common pathogenesis. 5. Specific and nonspecific (general) in pathogenesis. 6. Influence of the species, breed, age, sex of animals on the occurrence and course of the disease. 7. External barriers. 8. Internal barrier systems. 9. Sanogenesis. Mechanism of restoration of disturbed functions. 10. Compensation.
Tasks
1.When tympanii (swelling) of the rumen, the cow develops shortness of breath, cyanosis of the conjunctiva, the motility of the forestomachesis dramatically weakened, the gum stops, belching, large blood lines compressed, the general blood circulation is squeezed, with increased intra-abdominal pressure, the diaphragm presses on the thoracic cavity organs, hypoxemia and hypoxia. What are the cause-effect relationships for this disease? What is the main link in the pathogenesis of emerging disorders?
2.From the cow with brucellosis a calf was born. Six months after birth, a positive reaction to brucellosis was detected in the calf. Is it right to consider the pathology revealed in the calf as a hereditary disease?
3.A cow entered the veterinary clinic with signs of occlusion of the esophagus with a foreign body. The animal was marked by excessive salivation, swelling of the rumen, cyanosis of the mucous membranes, frequent shallow breathing, and a
62
pulse of weak filling. The general condition is depressed, the animal did not react to external stimuli.
The following medical measures were carried out: a rumenpuncture was performed and gases were removed, a foreign body (potato tuber) was extracted from the esophagus, cardiac preparations were injected subcutaneously, medications were given through the mouth to stimulate forestomachesmotility and suppress fermentation processes. Which of the above treatment procedures can be attributed to pathogenetic therapy, which to etiotropic, what to symptomatic?
TOPIC 4.
ACTION OF PATHOLOGICAL FACTORS
ON THE ANIMAL ORGANISM
Self-training and knowledge control tasks
1. Definition of the term "hyperthermia". 2. Sensitivity of agricultural animals of various species to overheating. 3. Burn disease. 4. Definition of the term "hypothermia". 5. Sensitivity of agricultural animals of various species to frigorism. 6. Frostbite. 7. Catarrhal diseases. 8. Effects of increased atmospheric pressure on the body. Caisson disease. 9. Effects of low atmospheric pressure on the body. Altitude sickness. 10. Factors determining the pathogenic effect of electric current on the animal organism. 11. Species sensitivity of animals to the pathogenic action of electric current. 12. Effects of atmospheric electricity on the animal organism. 13. The effect of ultrasound and infrasound on the animal organism. 14. External and internal irradiation of the organism of animals by ionizing radiation. 15. Acute radiation sickness. 16. The mechanism of the damaging effect of ionizing radiation. 17. Pathogenic effect of ultraviolet rays on the animal's organism. 18. Damaging effect of laser beams on the animal's organism.
63
Tasks
1.The horse, hot with a quick run, was given cold water. A few days later, the animal developed acute rheumatic hoof inflammation (rheumatic pododermatitis). What is the pathogenesis of the disease that has arisen? What theories explain the development of catarrhal diseases?
2.The pig on the second day after the burn of II – III degree on the area of about 40% of the body surface, anuria occurred. What is the reason for stopping the separation of urine from the affected animal.
3.In puppies, kept for a long time on a monotonous diet in an enclosed space, there were signs of rickets. After changing the diet and irradiation with a quartz lamp, the condition of the pups began to improve. What is the mechanism of action of ultraviolet rays on a growing organism?
4.After irradiating the guinea pig with X-rays and a dose of 159 mC/kg (600 R), it was euthanized during the stage of clinical manifestation of acute radiation sickness. Multiple hemorrhages were found in the pathoanatomical survey. A large amount of coagulated blood was found in the abdominal cavity. How to explain the mechanism of the appearance of multiple hemorrhages after X-ray irradiation?
5.During the reception of water from the machine, the bullcalf received a fatal electric shock due to contact of the bare electrical wire with the water supply pipe. With an external examination of the corpse and with pathoanatomical autopsy, the veterinarian could not detect any visible morphological changes. Why did the bull, who died from electrotrauma, lack visible morphological changes? How to explain the cause of death? In which case on the surface of the body of an animal affected by an electric shock, can there be traces in the form of a fourth-degree burn?
64
TOPIC 5.
CELLULAR PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY
Self-training and knowledge control tasks
1. Causes of cell damage. 2. Specific manifestations of cell damage. 3. Nonspecific manifestations of cell damage. 4. Changes in the content of water, sodium and potassium ions during cell damage. 5. Mediators of cellular damage and their pathophysiological significance. 6. Changes in cell organelles in case of damage. 7.Pathophysiological mechanisms of cellular dystrophies. 8. Protective-compensatory processes in the cell in case of damage.
Tasks
1.Many pathogenic microbes and viruses secrete neuraminidase, an enzyme that helps to reveal hidden structures of cell membrane elements that possess antigenic properties. What happens to cells exposed to neuraminidase?
2.In the mitochondria, oxidation and phosphorylation are associated, macroergic compounds (ATP etc.) are synthesized. What causes the separation of oxidation and phosphorylation? What are the consequences of this separation?
3.It is known that the transfer of substances through the
plasma membrane is associated with the expenditure of energy. In pathological conditions Na+ or K+ dependent adenosine triphosphatase can be inhibited. What changes will occur in these cases in the cytoplasm? How will the functions of the nucleus, lysosomes, other cell organelles change?
4.When cells are damaged in them, substances that act on other cells are formed. What are the names of such substances, and which of them are most studied?
5.After a serious mechanical trauma, the animal lies without movement, breathing is superficial, does not react to irrita-
65
tions, arterial pressure is sharply reduced. What is the name of this general reaction to cell damage and what is its mechanism?
6.Bacterial endotoxins (for example, intestinal-typhoid group) are capable of destroying the membranes of lysosomes. What are the consequences for the cell?
7.With the action of high temperature on the tissue in the cells, protein coagulation takes place. Is this damage specific and what happens to the cell membrane?
8.In case of inflammatory damage of withers tissue cells in a horse, an increase in body temperature is established. What can be the connection between these pathological processes?
9.Radiation damage is accompanied by a decrease in the number of cells in the peripheral blood. What is the mechanism of cell damage, and what blood cells die in the first place?
10.The common reaction to cell damage is stress. What cells decrease sharply in the blood?
THEME 6.
REACTIVITY OF THE ORGANISM,
ITS ROLE IN PATHOLOGY
Self-training and knowledge control tasks
1. Concept of immunopathology. 2. Types of allergies, allergens. 3. Pathogenesis of allergic reactions of immediate type (anaphylaxis). 4. Pathogenesis of allergic reactions of delayed type. 5. Three stages in the development of allergic reactions. 6. Local manifestations of allergic reactions (Artyus-Sakharov phenomenon, allergic reactions of smooth muscle organs, Overy phenomenon etc.). 7. Specific desensitization (according to Bezredka) and nonspecific. 8. Anaphylactic shock and its features in animals of different species. 9. Cytotoxins, their origin and significance in pathology. 10. The importance of an allergic reaction for the diagnosis of infectious and invasive diseases. 11. The
66
main immunocompetent cells and their cooperation in the immune response. 12. I.I. Mechnikov and his contribution to the development of the theory of phagocytosis. 13. Cells capable of phagocytizing; macrophages and microphages. 14. The role of phagocytosis in nonspecific and specific protection.
Tasks
1.After reintroduction of the pregnant mare serum (PMS) to a cowto stimulate sexual activity, a severe picture with motor function disorders developed. What is this phenomenon and what is its mechanism?
2.A newborn colt, after receiving colostrum, developed hemolytic anemia. How can you describe its mechanism and prevent the development of such a phenomenon in other foals?
3.How to prevent a possible anaphylactic reaction when the therapeutic serum is re-administered to the animal?
4.Young agricultural animals in the early postnatal period often show different degrees of physiological immaturity – hypotrophy. Animals-hypotrophs die relatively quickly, and they usually find fatty dystrophy of the thymus gland. How can we explain the reduced resistance of the organism of hypothrophic animals in connection with the functional deficiency of the thymus?
5.There was an outbreak of an acute infectious disease among cattle. There was a need to treat the diseased and protect clinically healthy animals by subcutaneous injection of hyperimmune serum, i.e. the creation of passive immunity. To maintain its tension, injections should be repeated every two weeks. What kind of danger will be exposed to animals with repeated injections of serum? How to prevent this danger?
6.Immunological examination of a group of patients with bronchopneumonia of calves grown under industrial complex conditions revealed a decrease in phagocytosis indices: phagocytic index and phagocytic activity. What is the pathogenetic re-
67
lationship between the suppression of phagocytic activity of granulocytes and the incidence of calves?
7.To diagnose tuberculosis, cows are intradermally injected with tuberculin (a drug from the causative agent of tuberculosis), and the reaction to it is read after 72 hours. What is the name of this type of allergy, what is its mechanism?
8.During the intradermal injection of tuberculin, the animal became anxious, the syringe slipped out of the needle, and its contents fell onto the mucous membrane of the eye to the veterinarian. A few hours later the doctor had acute conjunctivitis with a strong edema of the eyelids, a purulent discharge from the corner of the eye appeared, the body temperature increased. How to explain such a reaction of a person when tuberculin hits the conjunctiva of the eye?
9.In pigs who have recovered from an infectious disease – erysipelas, heart valve lesions of allergic origin are often observed. How can you describe the mechanism of allergy development in this case?
10.With contamination of wounds by earth, manure requires the prevention of tetanus, which is carried out by administering to large animals 50 ml of hyperimmune serum. After 14 days, the injection is repeated. What pathology can occur when the serum is re-introduced, how to prevent it?
TOPIC 7.
PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY OF PERIPHERAL CIRCULATION AND MICROCIRCULATION
Self-training and knowledge control tasks
1. Arterial hyperemia. Definition of the concept. 2. Types of arterial hyperemia. 3. The value of arterial hyperemia for the body. 4.Postanemicarterial hyperemia. 5. Possible consequences of arterial hyperemia. 6. Venous hyperemia. Definition of the
68
concept. 7. Microcirculatory changes, characteristic of venous hyperemia. 8. The causes of venous hyperemia. 9. The state of metabolism in the field of venous hyperemia. 10.Pathological phenomenon, observed with venous stasis in the vessels of the small circle of blood circulation. 12. Ischemia. 13.External signs of ischemia. 14. The consequences of ischemia. 15. The degree of sensitivity to ischemia of various organs and tissues. 16. Infarction. Definition of the concept. 17. Consequences of heart attacks. 18. Myocardial infarction. Embolism, embolus. Definition of concepts. 20. Embolism of exogenous origin. 21. Embolism of endogenous origin. 22. Paths of migration of emboli when they get into the jugular vein of an animal. 23. Thrombosis, thrombus. Definition of concepts. 24. Causes of thrombus formation. 25. Classification of thrombi by pathogenesis and position in the vessel. 26.Septical and aseptic melting of a thrombus. 27. The consequences of blood clots in the arteries and veins. 28. Stasis. Definition of the concept. 29. Mechanism of development of true capillary stasis. 30. Possible consequences of stasis.
Tasks
1.When intravenously injected into the jugular vein of the cow, 10-15 cm³ of air got into the jugular vein. Trace possible ways of movement of air emboli along the circulatory system of the animal. Can the cow in this case die?
2.Often, horses become infected with delafondiosis, a helminthic disease in which the sexually mature stages are parasitized in the intestine, and the larvae in the anterior mesenteric artery wall. They violate the integrity of the intima of the vessel, therefore, at the site of the localization of parasites in the lumen of the artery, a thrombotic mass is formed. What are the consequences of this thrombus formation in patients with horses?
3.The animal as a result of embolism has a complete blockage of one of the branches of the pulmonary artery and one of the branches of the renal artery. What are the possible consequences
69
of such a pathology in the lungs and kidneys? What do they depend on?
4. During the pathoanatomical autopsy of a horse that suddenly fell on a clear summer day, a massive hemorrhage (hematoma) was found in the brain tissue. From the anamnestic data it is known that the horse was brought to the arid zone of Central Asia from the European part of Russia in the winter, it was wellfed, worked in a harness. What disorders of peripheral circulation led to the death of the animal?
TOPIC 8.
INFLAMMATION
Self-training and knowledge control tasks
1. Inflammation. Definition. 2. Etiological factors causing inflammation. 3. External signs of inflammation. 4. Blood circulation and microcirculation in the inflammation area. 5. Characteristics of metabolic disorders in the focus of inflammation. 6. The role of biologically active substances in the genesis of inflammation. 7. Anti-inflammatory hormones of the adrenal cortex. 8. Types of exudates. 9. Kinds of purulent inflammation. 10. Emigration of leukocytes during inflammation, the basic theories explaining this phenomenon. 11. The doctrine of phagocytosis. Completed and incomplete phagocytosis. 12. Exudate properties. 13. Proliferation. 14. Classification of inflammation due to the predominance of alteration, exudation and proliferation.
15.Classification of inflammation by the reactivity of the body.
16.Inflammation as a reaction of the whole organism to damage.
17.Basic theories explaining the development of inflammation (Virkhov, Cohnheim, Mechnikov, Shade, Menkin). Their role in the formation of modern ideas about the genesis of inflammation.
18.Outcomes of inflammation. 19. The biological role of inflammation. 20. Features of inflammation in the main species of farm animals (horses, cattle, pigs and poultry).
70