Английский язык для аспирантов. Вводно-адаптивный курс. Учебное пособие
.pdfThe facts
The work
The research
The paper
The subject of the paper is
–
The main (primary, leading) object of the
The problem (the paper) is
dedicated to (relates to) ...
описанные в статье considered in the paper – факты,
рассмотренные в статье
compares – сравнивает relates to – связана c deals with – связана c concerns – касается
is devoted to – посвящена
has for its object – имеет целью
тема статьи …
главной темой исследования является …
research is –
проблема, которой посвящена статья, касается …
Слова и словосочетания, которые используются во время сообщения о характере содержания источника:
describe – описывать discuss – обсуждать consider – рассматривать
outline – намечать в общих чертах inform – сообщать
Примеры: |
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А new technique is studied |
– изучается новая методика … |
The advantages of the method |
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of … are considered |
– рассматриваются преимущества |
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метода |
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Обороты, которые используются во время изложения содержания источника:
As it is proved in the paper – как докатывается в статье The work witnesses that – работа свидетельствует …
Among the subjects treated in the paper are … – среди тем, рассматри-
ваемых в статье …
It is pointed that – указывается, что … It is shown that – показано, что …
It is stressed in the paper that – в статье подчеркивается, что …
To illustrate these statements – чтобы проиллюстрировать эти заявле-
ния
When carrying this method into effect – используя этот метод на прак-
тике
The paper is supplied (illustrated) with plots and drawings – статьяснаб-
жена (иллюстрирована) графиками и рисунками.
Additionals (Cliche for Precis). Read and translate the following word combinations.
The content of … is exposed It was noted that …
…, is built on postulates that …
A hypothesis is tested on … that supposes
The basic emphasis is made on … (an accent is made on) The results are presented (have been summarized) … The purpose of the study was to examine …
The hypothesis is put forward … It was asserted that …
… is revealed, (emphasized, described, reviewed, examined, investigated, shown)
Generalized results are reported … The idea is advanced, that …
The results are shown (demonstrated, outlined) … The author considers …
The author hypothesizes …
The author emphasizes (throws emphasis on) … The author describes …
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The author reviews …
The author investigates …
The author focuses his attention on …
The author strongly believes that ...
The author expresses the conviction, (opinion, view) that …
The author outlines the problem of …
The author draws the conclusion that …
The author gives information on …
The author brings out the problem of ...
The author finds it significant that …
The author accentuates ...
The author is fairly sure that ...
The key-note of the article is ...
The article summarizes ...
The article is concerned with the problem of ...
The author is confident that ...
The author strongly believes that ...
Summing up the ...
The paper comments on ...
Оценочные характеристики:
The work is intended for wide circles (broad range) of readers – работа предназначена для широкого круга читателей.
The main advantage of the work is (that) … – основное достоинство этой работы ...
The paper presents interest for ... – статья представляет интерес для … The work is one of the first attempts to ... – работа является одной из
первых попыток ...
This and many other questions are considered in the light of the latest trends and achievements of science (technology, etc.) – этот и многие другие вопросы рассматриваются в свете последних направлений и достижений науки (технологии и т. д.).
This work is an attempt of summing up ... – эта работа есть попытка подвести итог ...
As the title implies the story deals with – как означает заголовок, рас-
сказ касается …
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The results (the information) obtained by the author present interest for … – результаты (информация), полученные автором, представляют интерес для …
Practical tasks
1. Group the synonyms.
1. then |
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1. except |
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2. to treat |
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2. to relate to |
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3. to be devoted to |
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3. summary |
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4. defect |
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4. despite |
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5. to work out |
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5. to proceed to |
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6. besides |
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6. to develop |
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7. to pass to |
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7. disadvantage |
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8. précis |
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8. to consider |
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9. to deal with |
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9. further |
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10. nevertheless |
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10. to be dedicated |
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2. |
Find synonyms to the underlined words or word combinations. |
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l. The research is dedicated to … |
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a) work |
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b) investigations |
с) article |
d) invention |
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2. |
The leading object of the paper ... |
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а) new |
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b) secondary |
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c) next |
d) primary |
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3. |
The paper is concerned with … |
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a) touches upon |
b) is restricted |
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с) compares d) has for its object |
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4. |
In addition to this fact … |
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a) in spite of |
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b) is restricted in |
c) besides |
d) instead of |
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5. |
To utilize the method … |
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a) to supply |
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b) to apply |
c) to try |
d) to improve |
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6. |
То construct the experimental set-up … |
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a) to state |
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b) to treat |
c) to mount |
d) to test |
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7. |
In testing the technique … |
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a) trying |
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b) treating |
с) adjusting |
d) developing |
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8. |
The above mentioned technique was developed … |
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а) was employed |
b) was worked out |
c) was tested d) was described |
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9. |
To meet the requirements … |
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a) to consider |
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b) to treat |
c) to work out |
d) to satisfy |
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10. The experimental lay-out … |
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a) set-up |
b) equipment |
с) apparatus |
d) machine-tool |
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3.Translate the synonyms and memorize them.
1.therefore, hence, consequently
2.tо be concerned with, to be connected with, to deal with
3.main, leading, primary
4.modern, up-to-date, latest, new
5.radically, completely, entirely
6.moreover, furthermore, besides
7.tо use, to utilize, to apply, to employ
8.to consider, to treat, to examine
9.to develop, to work out
10.to conduct, to carry out
4. Form as many sentences as possible.
1. |
The article |
1. deals with |
1. the whole series of planning and |
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2. |
The paper |
2. is devoted to |
management |
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3. |
The research |
3. reviews |
2. the methods of investigating the |
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operating mode of the engine |
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3. the newly developed technique |
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1. |
The subject |
1. of the paper |
1. concerns |
1. a remarkable |
2. |
The essence |
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2. is connected |
development in |
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with |
electronics |
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3. is the following |
2. key problems |
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of equipment |
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maintenance |
1. |
The problem |
1. treated in the ar- 1. presents great |
1. physically |
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2. |
Once of the |
ticle |
interest |
2. for specialists |
aspects |
2. spotlighted in |
2. is no longer of |
3. for broad range |
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the paper |
interest |
of readers |
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3. the author |
3. is of great im- |
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touches upon |
portance |
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1. |
The author |
1. describes |
1. some problems 1. of the newly de- |
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2. |
The researcher |
2. spotlights |
2. main princi- |
veloped technique |
3. |
The investiga- |
3. touches upon |
ples |
2. of the equipment |
tor |
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3. key aspects |
maintenance |
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3. of improving the |
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operating mode of |
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the engine |
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1. |
The experi- |
1. has for its ob- |
1. to examine the |
1. inflation |
ment |
ject |
reasons of |
2. “black” market |
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2. |
The research |
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2. the investigation |
existence |
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of conditions of |
3. economic insta- |
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3. to consider the |
bility |
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ways of preventing |
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5. Look through the paper and compress using the following expressions:
What is thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the energy and work of a system. It was born in the 19th century as scientists were first discovering how to build and operate steam engines. Thermodynamics deals only with the large scale response of a system which we can observe and measure in experiments. Small scale gas interactions are described by the kinetic theory of gases. The methods complement each other; some principles are more easily understood in terms of thermodynamics and some principles are more easily explained by kinetic theory.
There are three principal laws of thermodynamics which are described on separate slides. Each law leads to the definition of thermodynamic properties which help us to understand and predict the operation of a physical system. We will present some simple examples of these laws and properties for a variety of physical systems, although we are most interested in thermodynamics in the study of propulsion systems and high speed flows. Fortunately, many of the classical examples of thermodynamics involve gas dynamics. Unfortunately, the numbering system for the three laws of thermodynamics is a bit confusing. We begin with the zeroth law.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics involves some simple definitions of thermodynamic equilibrium. Thermodynamic equilibrium leads to the large scale definition of temperature, as opposed to the small scale definition related to the kinetic energy of the molecules. The first law of thermodynamics relates the various forms of kinetic and potential energy in a system to the work which a system can perform and to the transfer of heat. This law is sometimes taken as the definition of internal energy, and introduces an additional state variable, enthalpy. The first law of thermodynamics allows for
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many possible states of a system to exist. But experience indicates that only certain states occur. This leads to the second law of thermodynamics and the definition of another state variable called entropy. The second law stipulates that the total entropy of a system plus its environment cannot decrease; it can remain constant for a reversible process but must always increase for an irreversible process.
1.The event(s) (the problem) spotlighted by the author of the paper (article, report) relates to …
2.In considering this problem (these events, facts, phenomena) the author (researcher) underlines …
3.In particular the author expresses the opinion that …
4.The paper (work, research) has for its aim to …
5.When discussing the problem (event) the author points out that …
6.The material (facts, data, events) considered in the article (paper, item) is (are) very important for …
7.First of all the author (researcher) gives the analysis of …
8.The question(s) (problem, event) treated in the work is (are) of vital interest for …
9.To prove his (her) opinion the author refers to (reviews, points out that) …
10.The facts (phenomena) described in the paper (article) present interest not only
11.The main advantages of the paper under discussion are …
12.The technique (equipment, method) developed by the author …
6. Read and translate the article. Find sentences in the text with the most important information. Organize a plan of the text. Compress the text according to the plan. Express your opinion on what you’ve read using the cliche given.
Titanium is present in the earth's crust at a level of about 0.6 % and therefore is the fourth most common structural metal after aluminum, iron and magnesium. The most important mineral sources are ilmenite (FeTiO3) and rutile (TiO2).
The first suspicion of the appearance of a new unknown element in the dark magnetic iron sand (ilmenite) in Cornwall (UK) was voiced in 1791 by Gregor, a clergyman and amateur mineralogist. In 1795, Klaprot, a German chemist, analyzed rutile from Hungary and discovered oxide of an unknown
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element, the same as the one reported by Gregor. Klaprot named the titanium element after the titans, the powerful sons of the earth in Greek mythology.
Many attempts have been made to isolate the metal from titanium ore using titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) as an intermittent stage. The production of ductile, high-purity titanium has still proved difficult due to the strong tendency of this metal to react with oxygen and nitrogen. The first demonstrations of TiCl4 reduction using Na or Mg gave small amounts of brittle titanium metal. Only in the 20th century (1937-1940) did Kroll develop a commercially attractive process in Luxembourg. This process included the reduction of titanium tetrachloride with magnesium in an inert gas atmosphere. The resulting titanium is called a "titanium sponge" because of its porous and spongy appearance. This famous Kroll process has remained virtually unchanged and today is the dominant titanium production process.
It should be noted that the industrial potential for the production of TiCl4 existed before the development of interest in metallic titanium. This is due to the fact that TiCl4 is a raw material for synthetic high-purity TiO2 used in paints. Even today, only 5% of TiCl4 production is used to produce titanium metal.
7. Read and translate the article. Find sentences in the text with the most important information. Organize a plan of the text. Compress the text according to the plan. Express your opinion on what you’ve read using the cliche given.
A Short History of Microsoft
Microsoft Corporation is an American technology company headquartered in Redmond, Washington, that supports the invention, manufacturing, and licensing of goods and services related to computing. It was registered in New Mexico in 1976 after being formed the year before by two childhood friends. Here's how Microsoft was founded and a brief summary of the company's history.
Before Paul Allen and Bill Gates co-founded Microsoft, they were avid computer geeks in an age when access to computers was hard to come by. Allen and Gates even skipped high school classes to live and breathe in their school's computer room. Eventually, they hacked the school's computer and were caught, but instead of being expelled, they were offered unlimited computer time in exchange for helping to improve the school computer's performance.
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With the help of partner Paul Gilbert, Gates and Allen ran their own small company, Traf-O-Data, while in high school and sold a computer to the city of Seattle for counting city traffic. In 1973, Gates left Seattle to attend Harvard University as a pre-law student. However, Gates' first love never left him as he spent most of his time in Harvard's computer center, where he kept improving his programming skills. Soon Allen moved to Boston as well, working as a programmer and pressuring Gates to leave Harvard so they could work together full time on their projects. Gates was uncertain of what to do, but fate stepped in.
In January 1975, Allen read an article in Popular Electronics magazine about the Altair 8800 microcomputer and showed it to Gates. Gates called MITS, makers of the Altair, and offered his and Allen's services to write a version of the new BASIC programming language for the Altair.
After eight weeks, Allen and Gates demonstrated their program to MITS, which agreed to distribute and market the product under the name Altair BASIC. The deal inspired Gates and Allen to form their own software company. Thus, Microsoft was started on April 4, 1975 in Albuquerque, New Mexico‒the home of MITS‒with Gates as the first CEO.
Образцы рефератов и резюме специальных текстов
INTELLIGENT MACHINES
3000 печатных знаков
The evolution of artificial intelligence is now proceeding so rapidly that by the end of the century cheap computers no larger than portable type-writers will exist that will be able to solve almost any problem faster and more efficiently than we can.
«Intelligence» in a machine, as in a human, best defined as the ability to solve is complex problems swiftly. This may involve medical diagnosis and prescriptions, resolving legal matters or <...> playing war-games: in other words advising governments whether or not to go to war.
While computers have already enhanced the for the future is that they will play the more beneficial role of preventing wars. If asked to assess the chances of victory, the computer will analyse facts quite differently from the life-long military expert with it his martial <...> enthusiasm and ambitions.
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When the same statics are fed into the emotionless machine each to be weighed with cold objectivity and then assessed against each other, the answer, far more often than in human decision-making, will be «if you start this war you will lose» <...> The computer cooly appraises the chances of success before the conflict begins, may well advise that the fight is unwinnable 7 or that the chances of victory are unacceptably low? and needless disaster can be avoided.
At what point do we decide that their mental capacity ts approaching the human level? This question will be answered by an ingenious trick known as the Turing Test.
We most easily assess people’s intelligence by communicating with them The late British mathematician, Alan Turing, proposed a simple test. A person would sit alone in a room talking by teleprinter with two other beings elsewhere, one of them human and the other а computer. When after substantial conversation he no longer knew which was which, the computer would have passed the Turing Test, and arguably would have attained human intelligence.
No machine today comes near to passing the Turing Test. These are early days, however, and we may suspect that the rise of machine’s IQ will be swift.
What will happen when this moment arrives? The most likely outcome is a world-wide slave empire, in which we are the masters and the computers virtually run the planet for us. But what if there arises a «Spartacus computer», a series of rebel machines with the ambition to reverse these roles?
Prof. Isaac Asimov may have solved the problem with a masterpiece of mathematical logic. He proposes that all intelligent machines should have the following three «Laws» programmed into them as instincts:
1.A robot may not injure a human being, or through inaction allow a human being to come to harm.
2.A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except when such orders would conflict with the First Law.
3.А robot must protect its own existence so long as such protection does not conflict with the First and Second Laws.
It sounds foolproof. but will it work? Pessimists will still pay attention to the ominous words of Arthur С. Clarke: «The first invention of a super-intel- ligent machine will be the last invention mankind will be allowed to make» (Berman M. Read and Recall: Passages for Advanced Reading Comprehension in English. London, 1980. P. 77‒78).
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